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The Appropriation of Aboriginal Cultural Heritage: Examining the Uses and Pitfalls of the Canadian Intellectual Property Regime

2014-12-10

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THEAPPROPRIATIONOFABORIGINALCULTURALHERITAGE:EXAMINING
THEUSESANDPITFALLSOFTHECANADIANINTELLECTUALPROPERTY
REGIME
VANESSAUDY*
ROBIC,
LLP
L
AWYERS,ANDPATENTANDTRADEMARKAGENTS

Appropriation
1ofAboriginalculturalheritagefirstbecameapopularsubjectof
mainstreamCanadianopinionjournalisminthe1990s,startingwithaseriesofletters
totheeditorintheGlobeandMail.In1991,readerswroteimpassionedletterstothe
editor,arguingwhetheritwasappropriateforanon-Aboriginalauthortouse
elementsofAboriginalcultureasasourceofinspirationforhisliteraryworks.Almost
25yearslater,culturalappropriationcontinuestobeamuchdiscussedsubject.Last
year,thefashionbrandChanelwascriticizedforfeaturingmodelssaunteringdown
thecatwalkinwarbonnetsforits“cowboysandIndians”-themedParis-DallasMétiers
d’Art2013/2014collection.Thispastsummer,BritishColumbia’sBassCoastfestival
wasthefirstCanadianmusicfestivaltobanthepopularpracticeofwearing
headdresses.Alsothisyear,thecoveroftheJulyeditionofElleUKMagazine,
featuringpopularR&BartistPharellWilliamswearingafeatheredheaddress,
generatedasignificantamountofbacklash,causingtheartisttoissueanapology
(althoughhelaterwentontodonsomequestionablewarpaintforBritishGQ’s
October2014cover).
TheaimofthisarticleistoanalyzetheappropriationofAboriginalcultureinCanada
andthelegalremediesavailabletoAboriginalpeoplesunderCanada’sintellectual
propertylaws.Thearticlewilldescribethenotionofculturalappropriationandexplain
howitthreatenstheculturalsurvivalofAboriginalpeoples.Thearticlewillthen
examinetheusefulnessandlimitationsofCanadianintellectualpropertylawsasa
tooltoassistAboriginalpeoplesinthefightagainstculturalappropriation.

Whilethescopeofthisarticleislimitedto”intellectualpropertylaws”,otherareasof
law,suchasconstitutionallaw,thelawofcontracts,andextra-contractualliabilityand
torts,mayalsobeofassistancetoAboriginalpeoplesinfightingcultural
appropriation.

©CIPS,2014.*FromROBIC,LLP,amultidisciplinaryfirmofLawyers,andPatentandTrade-markAgents.Published
in(2014)19:4IntellectualProperty1254(FederatedPress).Publication173.031.
1TheauthorwishestothankProfessorDavidNewhouseofTrentUniversity(AssociateProfessor,
BusinessAdministrationChair,IndigenousStudies)forhisgraciousfeedbackonthisarticle.

CulturalHeritageandCulturalAppropriation
a.Whatis”culturalheritage”?

UNESCOhasdefinedculturalheritageas”thetotalityoftradition-basedcreationsof
aculturalcommunity,expressedbyagrouporindividualsandrecognizedas
reflectingtheexpectationsofacommunityinsofarastheyreflectitsculturaland
socialidentity[…]”.
2

Theexpressionsofculturalheritagecanbeintangible,includingscientific,
agricultural,technicalandecologicalknowledge(alsocalled”traditionalknowledge”)
andverbal,musicalandactiveexpressions(suchasperformances);ortheymaybe
tangibleexpressionssuchasplasticarts,architecturalforms,humanremainsand
land.Expressionsofculturalheritagearemorethanjustproperty:theyexpressthe
wayoflifeandthoughtofaparticularsociety,whichareevidenceofitsintellectual
andspiritualachievements.
3

Culturalheritagetranscendstheindividual.Theword“heritage”itselfsuggeststhata
practicemustbemaintainedandpassedonbymorethanonegeneration.
4Among
Canada’sAboriginalpeoples,culturalheritageisusuallycommunallyowned.
Sometimes,custodyisassignedtoanassociationorindividualswhohavebeen
speciallytaughtorinitiatedtobeitscustodians.
5Thecustodianandmembersofthe
communityhavearesponsibilitytopreserve,use,developandtransmitsuch
traditionalculturalexpressioninaccordancewiththecustomarylawsandprotocolsof
thatcommunity.
6Preservationisachievedthroughpatternsofbehaviourand
knowledgeembodiedinskills,ceremonies,rituals.7Aboriginalpeoplestransfertheir
culturalheritageprimarilythroughintangiblemeans,suchassongs,symbols,

2RecommendationsontheSafeguardingofTraditionalCultureandFolklore,UNESCO,25thSess,Vol.
1,AnnexI,(1990)at231.
3LyndelV.Prott&PatrickJ.O’Keefe,“‘CulturalHeritage’or‘CulturalProperty’”,(1992)1:2
InternationalJournalofCulturalProperty307at307.
4Ibid;RosemaryJ.Coombe,“FirstNationsIntangibleCulturalHeritageConcerns:Prospectsfor
ProtectionofTraditionalKnowledgeandTraditionalCulturalExpressionsinInternationalLaw”in
CatherineBell&RobertPatterson,eds,ProtectionofFirstNations’CulturalHeritage:Laws,Policyand
Reform(Vancouver,BC:UniversityofBritishColumbiaPress,2009)247at267[“Coombe,First
NationsIntangibleCulturalHeritageConcerns”];UNSub-CommissiononthePromotionand
ProtectionofHumanRights,ReportoftheSeminaronthedraftprinciplesandguidelinesforthe
protectionoftheheritageofindigenouspeoples,UNECOSOC,52
ndSess,UNDoc
E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/26,Ann.I(2000).
5UNSub-CommissiononthePromotionandProtectionofHumanRights,Studyontheprotectionof
theculturalandintellectualpropertyofindigenouspeoples,UNECOSOC,45thSess,UNDoc
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/28(1993).
6Supranote3at307.7Ibidat308.

3
legendsandwaysoflife,andinamannerthatreflectstheirhistory,culture,ethics
andcreativity.8
b.A(short!)historyofthesuppressionofCanadianAboriginalculture

TheoutrageexpressedbyAboriginalpeopleinthefaceofculturalappropriation
cannotbeunderstoodoutsideofthehistoricalcontextofcolonialisminwhichtheloss
ofculturebegan.
Throughoutthe19
thand20thcenturies,Canada’sAboriginalpolicywasoneof
aggressiveassimilation,basedonthefalseassumptionthatAboriginalpeoplesare
doomedtoextinction,lesttheybe”saved”fromtheirprimitivecultureandsavage
ways.
9TheultimategoalofthispolicywastheassimilationofAboriginalpeopleinto
thedominantwhitecultureandthedisappearanceoftheirtraditionalculture.10

ResidentialschoolscutAboriginalchildrenofffromtheirculture,interruptingand
preventingthetransferoftraditionalvaluesandpracticestonewgenerations.The
removalofchildrenfromtheirfamiliescontinuedinthe1960s,whenchildwelfare
agenciesweregivenbroadpowerstoapprehendAboriginalchildren.Almostallthe
childrenofthatgenerationweresenttowhitefosterhomes.
11

MostceremonialexpressionsofAboriginalculturewerebannedinthelate19
th
centurybytheIndianAct.Fordecades,thepotlatch,sweatlodgesandsundances
werebanned.Thewearingoftraditionalregaliawasmadesubjecttothepermission
ofgovernmentofficials,whichwasoftenarbitrarilywithheld.Thepenaltyforfailureto
complywiththeserestrictionswasjailtimeandtheconfiscationofceremonial
objects.
12

ForceddisplacementofAboriginalpeoplesalsoplayedaroleinthesuppressionof
Aboriginalculturalheritage.Thoughsomerelocationtookplaceinthe19
thandearly
20thcenturies,Aboriginalpeoplesweredisplacedenmasseasofthe1940stomake

8SimonBrascoupéandKarinEndemann,“IntellectualPropertyandAboriginalPeople:Aworking
paper”(1999)MinisterofIndianAffairsandNorthernDevelopment,WorkingPaper,NoR32-
204/19991E,online:at1
[“Brascoupé&Endemann”].
9ThomasKing,TheInconvenientIndian:AcuriousaccountofnativepeopleinNorthAmerica
(Toronto,ON:AnchorCanada&RandomHouseofCanadaLtd,2012)at79[“King”].
10Superintendent-GeneralCampbellScott,headoftheDepartmentofIndianAffairs(1913-1932),said
ofhispolicies:”IwanttogetridoftheIndianproblem.Ourobjectiveistocontinueuntilthereisnota
singleIndianinCanadathathasnotbeenabsorbedintothebodypoliticandthereisnoquestion,and
noIndianDepartment”:King,ibidat72.
11Thispracticewasalsoreferredtoas”the’60sscoop”:RosemaryJ.Coombe,“ThePropertiesof
CultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity:NativeClaimsintheCulturalAppropriation
Controversy”,(1993)VI:ICanadianJournalofLaw&Jurisprudence249at275[“Coombe,The
PropertiesofCultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity”].
12Ibidat276.

4
wayforhydroelectricdamsandotherindustrialprojects.13Relocationscontributedto
thelossofculturalpracticesbyseveringthetiesbetweenAboriginalpeoplesandthe
landstowhichtheirtraditionalknowledgerelated.
14
c.ContinuedendangermentofAboriginalculturethroughcultural
appropriation

Today,culturalappropriationandnegativestereotypesposeasignificantthreattothe
culturalsurvivalofAboriginalpeoples.
15Itispartofapatternofinjusticethatallows
theperpetuationofinequalities.
Culturalappropriationisdefinedastheunauthorized’borrowing’ofexpressions,
artisticstyles,symbolism,mythsorknow-howfromadominatedculturebyamember
ofthedominantculture.
16Appropriationalsooccurswhenapersonofthedominant
culturepurportstobeanexpertontheexperienceofthedominatedculture17or
trivializestheexperiencesofamemberofthedominatedculture.18

Itisaveryrealphenomenon:accordingtoa1997study,81%ofAboriginalartisans
hadexperiencedsomeformofmisappropriationoruseoftraditionalAboriginal
designs.
19Aboriginalwordsandimageryareusedbypeopleandcompanieshaving
nolinktothecommunitiesfromwhichtheyborrow(tonamebutafew:EskimoPie,
Ookpikcoats,CherokeeJeeps).Nativespiritualpracticessuchassweatlodgesare
commodifiedandcommercializedbynewagegurus.
20Despiterecentcontroversy,
concertgoersstillregularlywearwarbonnetstomusicfestivals.

Inthepublicforum,Aboriginalidentityhasbeendefinedalmostexclusivelybythe
dominantculture,
21ofteninwaysthatmisrepresentordisparageAboriginalpeoples.
Aboriginalpeoplehaveexperienceddifficultyinmakingtheirvoicesheardinorderto

13King,supranoteErreur!Signetnondéfini.at92-96.14Ibidat90.15LorieGraham&StephenMcJohn,“IndigenousPeoplesandIntellectualProperty”,(2005)19Journal
ofLaw&Policy313at327.
16Jean-FrançoisGaudreault-Desbiens,“Lacritiqueautochtonedel’appropriationculturellecommedéfi
àlaconceptionoccidentaledelapropriétéintellectuelle:Lecasdel’appropriationartistique“(1999)
11:2C.P.I.401at2[“Gaudreault-Desbiens”].
17L.Todd,”NotesonAppropriation”(1990)16Parellelogramme24at24,citedinCoombe,The
PropertiesofCultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity,supranote11at279.
18Coombe,ThePropertiesofCultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity,ibidat282.19PhilipBird,“IntellectualpropertyrightsandtheInuitAmauti:acasestudy”(Paperdeliveredatthe
WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment,July2002),[unpublished]at2[“Bird”].
20Kingdescribesthese”uniqueexperiences”as”animpossiblemixofTaoism,Buddhism,Druidism,
sciencefiction,andgeneralnonsense,tiedtogetherwithDeadIndianceremonyandsinewtogive
theirproductprovenanceandvalidity,alongwithapatinaofexoticism.”:King,supranote9at58.
21Supranote16at4.

5
correctthesituation.22Publishingandproductionhousesshowlittleinterestin
Aboriginalcontentthatisnot”authentic”(aeuphemismfor”stereotyped”).23Inthis
manner,negativestereotypesoperateasameansofsocialcontrol.Stereotypes
reinforcenegativeviewsofthedominatedculturalgroupandserveasgroundsto
excludeitsmembersfromculturalandpoliticaldiscourse.Consequently,the
dominantculturalgroupcontinuestowieldadisproportionateamountofpolitical
power,muchasitdidincolonialtimes.
24

Theassimilatoryeffectsofcolonialpoliciesandculturalappropriationarealso
similar.
25Culturalappropriationdispossessespeopleoftheiridentity.Duetothe
denigrationoftheirvaluesandtheomnipresenceofthedominantcultureineducation
andmedia(which,inCanada,reflectamostlyurban,non-Aboriginallifestyle
26),
membersofadominatedculturewilleschewtheirowncultureinfavourofthe
dominantculture.
Whetherornotoneacceptsthatculturalappropriationisaformofneocolonialism,its
negativeimpactsonthehealth,wellbeingandcapacityforeconomicself-sustenance
ofAboriginalpeoplescannotbeignored.
Culturalappropriationislinkedtomentalhealthissues.Theinappropriateuseof
sacredtraditionalknowledgehasdestroyeditssacrednessandtwisteditsmeaning,
weakeningitintheeyesofall.
27Aboriginalyouthsufferfromlowself-esteemduetoa
negativeviewoftheirownculture,supportedbyabeliefinnegativestereotypes.28
CulturestressisamajorfactordrivingAboriginalyouthtoself-destructivebehaviour
andsuicide.
29

CulturalappropriationalsothreatensAboriginalpeoples’economicself-sustenance.
Traditionalknowledgerepresentsaninterestingsourceforthedevelopmentofnew
medicinesandtechnologies.However,inthepast,someAboriginalgroupshavelost
controloftheirtraditionalknowledgebydisclosingittoWesternresearcherswhothen
usedsuchinformationforculturallyinappropriatepurposes.Insomeinstances,non-
Aboriginalcompanieshavecommercializedproductsbasedontraditionalknowledge
orexpressionsofculture,withoutsharingtheprofitswiththecommunityfromwhich
suchknowledgeoriginated.
30Forexample,theHudson’sBayCompanycameunder

22RoyalCommissiononAboriginalPeoples,Report,Volume3GatheringStrength,1996at583
[“RCAPReport”];Coombe,ThePropertiesofCultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity,supra
note11at275.
23Coombe,ThePropertiesofCultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity,ibidat258.24Supranote16at4.25Supranote15at327.26Supranote22at547.27Ibidat558.28Supranote16at5.29Supranote22at547.30FamouscasesincludethepatentingofAyahuasca(ToninaSimeone,“IndigenousTraditional
KnowledgeandIntellectualPropertyRights”(2004)LibraryofParliamentofCanada,WorkingPaper,
NoPRB03-38E,online:at3

6
fireduringthe2010VancouverOlympicGamesforitsdecisiontomarketnon-
authenticCowichan-stylesweaterstocommemoratetheevent.TheBayhadinitially
enteredintonegotiationswiththeCowichanFirstNationtoproduceauthentic
Cowichansweaters,whicharehand-knitinadistinctivestylefromnatural,undyed
wool.Thedealfellthrough,astheNationdidnothavethecapacitytoproducethe
quantitiesofproductrequiredintheallottedtime.TheBay’ssubsequentlyoutsourced
manufacturingtoathirdpartywhohadaccesstomechanizedknittingequipmentand
cheapermaterials.Thesweatersproducedbythemanufacturerboreastriking
resemblancetoauthenticCowichansweatersandwerereferredtoas“knock-offs”in
themedia.MembersoftheNationwereupsetbythelossofapotentialsourceof
incometoanonAboriginalcompanywhoseproductsmightbeconfusedwiththeir
own.TheBayeventuallyagreedtoalast-minutelicensingdeal,allowingtheNation
toselltheirownsweatersattheFourHostFirstNationsPavilion(atemporary
pavilionlocatedindowntownVancouver)andattheBay’sflagshipstorein
Vancouver.Noprofitsharingarrangementhasbeenreported.
31

ThefearofmisappropriationofAboriginaltraditionalknowledge,culturalexpressions
andgeneticandbiologicalresourcesandhascreatedachillingeffect:theChiefsof
OntarioandtheNishnawbeAskiNationhavedeclaredamoratoriumonthe
commercializationofplantsandanimals.
32Aboriginalcommunities’capacitytoprofit
fromtheirownknowledgeisthereforelimitedastheyarerarelyequippedtoengage
incomplexandexpensiveR&Dwithoutrecoursetoexternalresourcesorexpertise.
33
Out-licensingwouldbeanaccessiblewayforthesecommunitiestodevelopand
profitfromtheirknowledge,butdistrusthascreatedanobstacletothesharingof
knowledgewithoutsiders.
IntellectualPropertyasaToolfortheProtectionofAboriginalCulture
a.Successstories

[“Simeone”])andofgeneticallymodifiedcotton(JosephGithaiga,“IntellectualPropertyLawandthe
ProtectionofIndigenousFolkloreandKnowledge”(1998)5:2MurdochUniversityElectronicJournalof
Lawatpara79[“Githaiga”]);andthecommercializationofhoodiaasaweight-losssupplement(UN
DESA,StateoftheWorld’sIndigenousPeoples(NewYork,2009)at75(UNDoc.ST/ESA/328),
online:).
31CourtneyDoagoo,”NavajoNationSuesUrbanOutfittersInc.”,IPOsgoode(June7,2012),online:< http://www.iposgoode.ca/2012/06/navajo-nation-sues-urban-outfitters-inc/>.
32LorrileeMcGregor,OntarioFirstNationsPerspectivesonTraditionalKnowledge:ADiagnosticand
DiscussionPaperPreparedfortheChiefsinOntario,June7,2009.
33RobertK.Paterson&DennisS.Karjala,“Lookingbeyondintellectualpropertyinresolvingprotection
oftheintangibleculturalheritageofindigenouspeoples”(2003)11CardozoJ.ofIntl&Comp.Law633
at645[“Paterson&Karjala”].

7
Giventheintangiblenatureofculturalheritage,itwouldseemnaturaltoseekits
protectionthroughtheuseintellectualpropertylaws.34Indeed,someeffortstouse
trade-marklawshavebeenmetwithsuccess.
The”iglootag”andthe”GenuineCowichanApproved”certificationmarksare
interestingexamplesoftheuseofintellectualpropertyrightstopromoteAboriginal
culture.ThesemarksweredevelopedinordertohelpAboriginalartistspromotetheir
waresanddistinguishthemfromcounterfeitgoods.
35Theiglootagwasdeveloped
byIndianandNorthernAffairsCanadain1959andisavailabletoInuitartistsonly.It
certifiesthattheirworkisatruepieceofInuitart.
36TheCowichanBandCouncilof
B.C.registereditscertificationmarkinrelationtoclothing,particularlytheheavy
woollenCowichansweaters,whicharehand-dyedandknitusingtraditional
techniques.
Thoughseveralfirstnationshaveregisteredofficialmarksforcrestsandflags,the
SnuneymuxwFirstNationinB.C.hasfoundaparticularlyinnovativeuseforthistype
ofmark.Theyhaveregisteredthesymbolsdepictedinancientpetroglyphsfoundin
theNanaimoRiverEstuary.Notonlyhasthishelpedprotectthesacredsymbolsfrom
culturallyinappropriateuse,ithasalsohelpedpreventtheerosionofthepetroglyphs
themselves.Touristsusedtotransferthesymbolsbyrubbingthemontopaper,butby
registeringanofficialmark,theSnuneymuxwwereabletocurbthispractice.
37
b.Challengesduetofundamentaldifferencesintheory

Despitethesesuccesses,notallcomponentsofculturalheritagecanbeprotectedby
intellectualpropertylawsdueinparttofundamentaldifferencesbetweenthe
underlyingphilosophyofintellectualpropertylawandAboriginalethicsinrespectof
culturalheritage.
Themaingoalunderlyingthelawofpatentsandofcopyrightistopromoteand
protectinnovationandoriginalitybyawardingtheinventor,authororownerwitha
bundleofeconomicrights.
38Traditionalknowledgedoesnottypicallymeetthe
criteriaofnoveltyororiginality,asithasbeenhandeddownforgenerationsandis

34Supranote33at638.35Supranote8at20.36HowardMann,“IndigenouspeoplesandtheuseofintellectualpropertyrightsinCanada:Case
studiesrelatingtotheintellectualpropertyrightsandtheprotectionofbiodiversity”(1999)Intellectual
PropertyPolicyDirectorate–CorporateGovernanceBranch–IndustryCanada,WorkingPaperat45
[“Mann”].
37MichaelF.Brown,Whoownsnativeculture?(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2003)at
83-84.
38MohsenalAttar,NicoleAylwin&RosemaryJ.Coombe,“IndigenousCulturalHeritageRightsin
InternationalHumanRightsLaw”inCatherineBell&RobertPatterson,eds,ProtectionofFirstNations’
CulturalHeritage:Laws,PolicyandReform(Vancouver,BC:UniversityofBritishColumbiaPress,
2009)311at320;Brascoupé&Endemann,supranote8at2,25.

8
widelyheldbymembersofthecommunity.39Moreover,Aboriginalethicsdonot
attachexclusiveeconomicrightstoculturalheritage.Knowledgeisnotacommodity
thatcanbepurchasedandexploitedatwill.
40Peoplemusthandleandtransmit
knowledgeresponsibly,asitcarriesthepowertodogoodorilltotheknower,the
communityand,incertaincases,theenvironment.
41Aboriginalethicsandspirituality
arefocusedonthedevelopmentandpreservationofgroupidentityandsurvival
throughrespectandbalancebetweenallthings,ratherthanthepromotionof
individualeconomicgain.
42

ThecommunalvaluesinherentinAboriginalethicsareanotheraspectthatconflicts
withintellectualpropertylaw.Asdiscussed,culturalheritagebelongstothe
community,withownershipsometimesvestedinacustodian.
43Conversely,the
ownershipofcopyrightorofapatentisusuallyassignedtotheindividualcreatoror
inventor.
44Thoughco-ownershipispossible,itisoftenviewedasundesirableand
fraughtwithcomplications.
Aboriginalethicsandintellectualpropertylawsalsodifferintheirdefinitionofthe
objectdeservingofprotection.Undercopyrightlaw,theworkthatisprotectedisthe
expressionwhichtheauthorgivestotheidea,nottheideascontainedinit.
45For
example,copyrightprotectsthesculpturebyBillReiddisplayedintheVancouver
InternationalAirport
46fromunauthorizedreproduction,butitdoesnotpreventanon-
AboriginalthirdpartyfrompaintingaHaida-stylepicturedepictingasimilarscenario
ofacanoefilledwithanimalsorfromcarvingatotempolewiththesamecharacters.
ThisispreciselywhatAboriginalartistswishtoprevent.Theyareseekingtogaina
certainamountofcontrolovertheideas,legends,symbolsorartisticstyleswhichare
appropriatedfromtheircultures.
47

Copyrightlawsalsorequirethattheexpressionofanideabe”fixed”inorderto
benefitfromprotection.Aboriginalintellectualandspirituallifehasmanifesteditself
throughfolklore,ritualsandtraditionalskills,preservedandtransmittedbyoral
tradition,whichisnotcopyrightableasitisnotfixedinwriting,filmorart.
48

39Brascoupé&Endemann,ibidat9.40MarleneBrantCastellano,“EthicsofAboriginalResearch”(2004)1:1JournalofAboriginalHealth98
at104[“BrantCastellano”];Lou-AnnNeel&DianneBiin,“ByDesign:TheProtectionofIntellectualand
CreativeRights”(ConferencedeliveredattheUBCICProtectionKnowledge-TraditionalResources
RightsintheNewMillenniumConference,February2000)[unpublished]at5[“Neel&Biin”].
41BrantCastellano,ibidat104.42Simeone,supranote30at5;Brascoupé&Endemann,supranote8at2,14;Coombe,The
PropertiesofCultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity,supranote11at279.
43Githaiga,supranote30atpara14.44Supranote8at15.45Coombe,ThePropertiesofCultureandthePoliticsofPossessingIdentity,supranote11at259.46ThesculptureinquestionisTheSpiritofHaidaGwaii:TheJadeCanoebyBillReid.47RobertMainville,“Survoldel’étatdudroitautochtoneenmatièredeprotectiondupatrimoine
culturel”(2007)19:1C.P.I.183at191[“Mainville”].
48Supranote3at312;Brascoupé&Endemann,supranote8at14;Paterson&Karjala,supranote33
at639.

9
Finally,whereasAboriginalethicssupportatemporallyunlimitedprotectionof
knowledgeandculturalexpressions,49thescopeofprotectionaccordedby
intellectualpropertylawsislimitedintime,withtheexceptionoftrade-marks,which,
intheory,canberegisteredandrenewedindefinitely.Inordertobalancethe
incentiveforinnovationwiththemaintenanceofapublicdomainonwhichartistsand
inventorsmaydrawforinspiration,Canadianintellectualpropertyrightsarelimitedin
time.
50

NotonlyareAboriginalethicsandthetheoriesunderpinningmostintellectual
propertylawsatodds,buttheirapplicationcanleadtodifferentresults.Insome
cases,intellectualpropertylawssanctionpracticeswhichwouldotherwisebe
prohibitedundercustomarylaw.
51

Sincecopyrightlawsonlyprotecttheexpressionofanideaandnotstylesorthemes,
non-AboriginalartistsarefreetoappropriateAboriginalstylesandusethemina
fashionthatiscontrarytothestrictcustomsoftheAboriginalcommunityoforigin.
52
If,forexample,anon-AboriginalauthordocumentsAboriginallegendsandpublishes
theminabook,heenjoystheprotectionofcopyrightintheworkandtheexclusive
economicrightsthatcomewithit.Iftheauthorlearnedofthelegendsfromthe
Aboriginalcommunity,publicationwouldconstituteaninfringementofAboriginal
culturalnormsbutwouldbesanctionedbyintellectualpropertylaws.

Intellectualpropertylawsmayalsobeusedtoreinforcenegativestereotypes.For
example,manysportsteamshavetrade-markednameswhichmakereferenceto
Aboriginalpeople,sometimesusingracialslurs,suchastheRedskinsandthe
Redmen,ultimatelyreducingAboriginalidentitytotheimageofahappymascotora
savagewarrior.Therightsconferredontheholdersofthesetrade-marksareoften
thebasisoflucrativeproductfranchisingarrangements,theprofitsofwhicharenot
sharedwithAboriginalcommunities.c.Practicalissues

Differingcircumstances(includingknowledge,wealth,powerandability)rendersome
peoplebetterablethanotherstoexploitlegalrights.
53Aboriginalpeoplesexperience
issueswithaccesstojusticemorethantheaveragepopulationduetodifferencesin
culture(asexplainedabove)andalackofresourcesandeducation.

49Brascoupé&Endemann,ibidat10;Paterson&Karjala,ibidat640.50Between10yearsfromregistration(forindustrialproperty)to50yearsafterthedeathoftheauthor
(forcopyright).
51RCAPReport,supranote22at554;Coombe,FirstNationsIntangibleCulturalHeritageConcerns,
supranote4at252;Brascoupé,supranote8at11;King,supranote9at97.
52Supranote16at13.53AnupamChander&MadhaviSunder,“TheRomanceofthePublicDomain”(2004)92CalLRev
1331at1341.

10
TherehasbeenamarkedabsenceofsignificantenforcementactionsbyCanadian
Aboriginalgroupslargelyduetothecostofregistrationand/orenforcementof
intellectualpropertyrights.
54Ifthecostsofregistrationandenforcementare
prohibitive,thecostofopposingoffensivetrade-markregistrationswithaviewto
haltingthepropagationofnegativestereotypes,forexample,wouldbeviewedas
astronomical.
Insomecases,thegovernmenthassteppedintoopposeorpreventoffensive
registrations.The”Redskins”trade-markwascancelledbytheUSPTOasitwas
deemedtobedisparagingtoNativeAmericans.Hadthedisputeoverthe”Redskins”
namearoseinCanada,theoutcomemighthavebeensimilar,asscandalous,
obsceneorimmoralmarksareprohibited.
55However,ifaregisteredmarkusesa
wordthat,followingashiftinpublicmores,becomesoffensive,itisnotautomatically
cancelled.AsearchoftheCIPOdatabaserevealsthatthe”Redskins”trade-markis
stillregisteredinCanada.Moreover,trade-marksthatmakeuseofethnicslursare
prevalent,including”RedIndian”andthecontroversial”Redmen”.Manyothertrade-
marksusingIndianheaddesignsorothernamesordesignsrelatingtoAboriginal
culturehavebeenregisteredbynon-Aboriginalbusinessestomarketfirearms,
alcohol,axesandtobacco,thuscontributingtotheperpetuationofnegative
stereotypes.
56Forexample,theregisteredtrade-mark”Savage”isusedin
connectionwithfirearms.Outofcontext,themarkwouldnotappearoffensive,butin
thiscaseitisusedincombinationwiththeunregisteredlogoofanIndianchief
wearingaheaddress.
57

Afurtherchallengeisthatcancellationofanoffensivemarkdoesnotprohibitthe
ownerofthemarkfromcontinuingtobenefitfromcommonlawprotectionofthe
mark.Assuch,cancellationofoffensiveregisteredtrade-marksis,atbest,an
incompletesolution.
Asecondfactorwhichlimitsaccesstojusticeisalackofeducationalmaterialsaimed
atinformingAboriginalpeopleoftheirintellectualpropertyrights.
58Studiesshowthat,
despitepublicawarenesscampaigns,Aboriginalpeopleeitheraren’tawareoftheir
intellectualpropertyrightsormisunderstandthem.Forexample,onestudynotedthat
itwasuncleartosomeparticipantsthatenforcementofintellectualpropertyisthe
responsibilityoftheindividualrights-holder,notthegovernment.
59

54Neel&Biin,supranote40at8;Brascoupé&Endemann,supranote8at10.55Trade-marksAct,RSC1985,cT-13,s9.56Supranote8at22.57Trade-marksusingdisparagingtermsorimageryinreferencetootherethnicgroupswerefound,as
well.
58Bird,supranote19at14;Mann,supranote33at24,43,46;Paterson&Karjala,supranote33at
663.
59Supranote8at10.Therearepenalprovisionsincertainintellectualpropertystatutes,buttheyare
rarelyenforced.

11
Closelyconnectedtothischallengeisthelanguagebarrier.ThoughAboriginal
languagesareonthedecline,alinguisticbarrierremains,evenforAboriginalpeople
whospeakEnglish.DifferencesbetweenStandardEnglishandthedialectsspoken
byAboriginalpeoplearesuchthatpubliclyavailablematerialsonintellectualproperty
maynotbefullyunderstoodbytheaverageAboriginalperson.
60EvenAboriginal
peoplewhospeakStandardEnglish(ornon-Aboriginalpersons,forthatmatter)may
experiencedifficultyinunderstandingsuchmaterials,as”[i]ntellectualpropertylaws
usetermsandconceptsthatarenotapartofeverydaylifeformostpeople
anywhere,letaloneintheArctic.”
61

ThepracticalinabilityofAboriginalpeopletoenforcetheirrightsrendersCanadian
intellectualpropertylawslessviableasatoolfortheprotectionofAboriginalcultural
heritage.
62Intellectualpropertylawscurrentlyonlyofferanincompletesolutiontothe
complexproblemswhichposeculturalappropriationandnegativestereotypes.63

Conclusion:thepathforward

TheuseofCanadianintellectualpropertylawsasatoolfortheprotectionof
Aboriginalculturalheritageagainstculturalappropriationleadstoconfusionand
adverseconsequences.Thisisduetothefactthattheselawswerenotdevelopedto
meettheaimofculturalheritageprotection,butforothereconomicpurposes.
64″The
challengesthatpostcolonialstrugglesposeforCanadiansocietycannotbemetby
ourtraditionalrelianceuponcategoriesofthoughtinterestedfromacolonialera.The
conceptualtoolsofmodernityareillequippedtodealwiththeconditionsof
postmodernityinwhichweallnowlive.”
65

Newconceptsofownershipandcontroloverculturalheritagemustbecreatedtodeal
withandprotectexistingandemergingexpressionsofAboriginalculturalidentity.”
66
AccordingtoVineDeloria,Jr.,”[w]hatweneedisaculturalleave-us-alone
agreement,inspiritandinfact.”
67Mostscholars,however,havereachedamore
optimisticconclusion.Thereisaconsensusthatexistingintellectualpropertylaws
shouldbesupplementedbysuigenerislegislationthataddressesthespecificneeds

60NaghmehBabaee,“LanguageChallengesofAboriginalStudentsinCanadianPublicSchools”
(2011)4:1FirstNationsPerspectives110.
61Supranote19at11.62Supranote33at50.63Ibidat4.64Supranote3at310;YsoldeGendreau,“RejuvenatingMoralRightsthroughImmemorialClaims”
(2005)19I.P.J.227at235
65Coombe,FirstNationsIntangibleCulturalHeritageConcerns,supranote4at255.66Coombe,FirstNationsIntangibleCulturalHeritageConcerns,supranote4at262.67VineDeloriaJr.,CusterDiedforYourSins:AnIndianManifesto(Norman,OK:Universityof
OklahomaPress,1998).

12
ofAboriginalgroupsandthecharacteristicsofculturalheritagewhichdifferfrom
traditionalintellectualproperty.68

TheFederalGovernmenthasalreadycommitteditselftolegislatingthematter
throughmanyinternationalinstruments.
69Moreover,ithasaconstitutionalfiduciary
obligationtowardAboriginalpeopleswhichcouldarguablyimplyapositivedutyto
protectAboriginalculture.
70Newlawsshouldtakeintoaccountlessonslearnedinthe
draftingofinternationalinstruments71andothernationallaws72whichaimtoprotect
theculturalheritageofindigenouspeoples.Also,ifwetrulywanttomovepastthe
graveerrorsofourcolonialhistory,weshouldensurethatAboriginalpeoplesare
involvedasmuchaspossibleinallstepsofthelegislativeandjudicialprocess,from
draftingthelawstoenforcingthem.IfCanadianandAboriginalrulesormorescome
intoconflict,commonunderstandingsandsharedinterestscanandshouldbe
negotiated.
73Finally,acompletesolutionmustaddresstheaccesstojusticeissues
outlinedabove.

68Coombe,FirstNationsIntangibleCulturalHeritageConcerns,supranote4at262;Gaudreault-
Desbiens,supranote16at2
69Seeforexample:UNDeclarationontherightsofIndigenousPeoples,GARes295,UNGAOR,61st
Sess,107thPlenMtg,UNDocA/RES/61/295(2007),art.29;ConventiononBiologicaldiversity,5
June1992,1760U.N.T.S.142(enteredintoforce29December1993);AgreementonTrade-Related
AspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights,15April1994,MarrakeshAgreementEstablishingtheWorld
TradeOrganization,Annex1C,1869U.N.T.S.299,1994;InternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social
andCulturalRights,16December1966,993UNTS3art15(enteredintoforce3January1976).
70Mainville,supranote47at204;BrantCastellano,supranote40at11071Seeforexample:UNESCO&WIPO,TunisModelLawonCopyrightforDevelopingCountries,1976;
UNESCO&WIPO,ModelProvisionsforNationalLawsontheProtectionofExpressionsofFolklore
AgainstIllicitExploitationandotherFormsofPrejudicialAction,1985;FirstInternationalConference
ontheCulturalandIntellectualPropertyRightsofIndigenousPeoples,CommissiononHumanRights
Sub-CommissionofPreventionofDiscriminationandProtectionofMinoritiesWorkingGroupon
IndigenousPopulations,MaatatuaDeclarationonCulturalandIntellectualPropertyRightsof
IndigenousPeoples,1993;SouthPacificCommission,ModelLawontheProtectionofTraditional
KnowledgeandExpressionsofCulture,2002;WIPO,IntergovernmentalCommitteeonIntellectual
PropertyandGeneticResources,TraditionalKnowledgeandFolklore,TheProtectionOfTraditional
Knowledge:RevisedObjectivesAndPrinciples,WIPO/GRTKF/IC/8/5,2005;UNSub-Commissionon
thePromotionandProtectionofHumanRights,Reportoftheseminaronthedraftprinciplesand
guidelinesfortheprotectionoftheheritageofindigenouspeople,UNECOSOC,52
ndSess,UNDoc
E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/26(2000);InuitCircumpolarConference,PrinciplesandElementsfora
ComprehensiveArcticPolicy,1991;WIPO,ComparativeSummaryofSuiGenerisLegislationforthe
ProtectionofTraditionalCulturalExpressions,WIPO/GRTKF/IC/5/INF/3,2003.
72ThesecountriesincludePanama,Peru,CostaRica,NewZealand.73BrantCastellano,supranote40at103

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