A Summary of Some Distinctions Between Canadian and American Copyright Law and Practice



ASUMMARYOFSOMEDISTINCTIONSBETWEENCANADIANANDAMERICAN
COPYRIGHTLAWANDPRACTICE

By
BobH.Sotiriadis*
LEGERROBICRICHARD,Lawyers,
ROBIC,Patent&TrademarkAgents
CentreCDPCapital
1001Square-Victoria-BlocE–8
thFloor
Montreal,Quebec,CanadaH2Z2B7
Tel.(514)9876242-Fax(514)8457874
www.robic.ca-info@robic.com

INTRODUCTION
Inrecentyearstherehasbeenalesseningofthedistinctionsbetweenthe
CanadianandAmericansystemsofcopyrightprotection.Nevertheless,there
arestillsomedifferencesbetweenthetwosystemsoflawandunderstanding
thosedifferencesisimportantbecauseoftheirimpactontheextentof
protectionavailableforprotectedworks.Moreandmore,wepractitioners
havetoconsidercopyrightlawinaninternationalcontext.Thislecturewill
attemptasuccinctcomparisonofU.S.andCanadianCopyrightlawand
practice.
Inthispaper,wehaveattemptedtolimitthediscussiontothelesstechnical
aspectsofthissubjectmatterandconcentrateonelementswhichcomprise
theessenceofcopyright.
1.
PROTECTEDWORKS
TABLE1.1COPYRIGHTSUBJECTMATTER

USCopyrightAct(section102)CanadianCopyrightAct
Protectedworksare”original
worksofauthorshipfixedinanyT
heCanadianCopyrightAct
doesnotspecificallyrequirethe




























































©LEGERROBICRICHARD,1998.
*Lawyer,BobH.SotiriadisisaseniorpartnerinthelawfirmLEGERROBICRICHARD,g.p.andinthe
patentandtrademarkagencyfirmROBIC,g.p.Thismaterialwasoriginallydesignedforthe
purposeofalecturedeliveredinAugust1998duringtheannualmeetingoftheSectionof
IntellectualPropertyoftheAmericanBarAssociationheldinToronto.Publication228.



tangiblemediumofexpression
nowknownorlaterdeveloped,
fromwhichtheycanbe
perceived,reproduced,or
otherwisecommunicated,either
directlyorwiththeaidofa
machineoradevice”.f
ixationofthework.However
theseconditionisimplicitand
wellestablishedinCanadian
caselaw.Thecriteriaof
originalityisfoundinSection5(1)
oftheCopyrightAct,sincethat
sectionstatesthatCopyright
subsistsineveryoriginal
literary,
dramatic,musicalandartistic
work.iii

Comments:IntheUSaswellasinCanada,protectedworksare
originalworks,fixedinanytangiblemediumofexpression.Aworkwill
usuallybeconsideredoriginalifitisindependentlycreated(as
opposedtocopiedfromotherworks)andifitpossessesatleasta
minimaldegreeofcreativity.
TABLE
1.2CATEGORIESOFPROTECTEDWORKS

USCopyrightLaw(sections101,
102)C
anadianCopyrightLaw(
section2)
“literaryworks”:worksotherthan
audio-visualworks,expressedin
words,numbers,orotherverbal
ornumericalsymbolsorindicia,
regardlessofthenatureofthe
materialobjectsinwhichthey
areembodied.”
literaryworks”:includestables,
computerprograms,and
compilationsofliteraryworks.
“musicalworks”(includingany
accompanyingwords)–
undefined”
musicalworks”:anyworkof
musicormusicalcomposition,
withorwithoutwords,andany
compilationthereof.
“dramaticworks”(includingany
accompanyingmusic)–
undefined”
dramaticworks”:includes
(a)anypieceforrecitation,
choreographicworkormime,
thescenicarrangementor
actingformofwhichisfixedin
writingorotherwise,
(b)anycinematographicwork,
and
(c)anycompilationofdramatic



works.
“artisticworks”:includes
paintings,drawings,maps,
charts,plans,photographs,
engravings,sculptures,worksof
artisticcraftsmanship,
architecturalworks,and
compilationofartisticworks.
“worksofvisualart”means:
(a)painting,drawing,printor
sculpture,existinginasingle
copy,inalimitededitionof200
copiesorfewerthataresigned
andconsecutivelynumberedby
theauthor,or,inthecaseofa
sculpture,inmultiplecast,
carved,orfabricatedsculptures
of200orfewerthatare
consecutivelynumberedbythe
authoranddearthesignatureor
otheridentifyingmarkofthe
author,or
(b)astillphotographicimage
producedforexhibitionpurposes
only,existinginasinglecopy
thatissignedbytheauthor,orin
limitededitionof200copiesor
fewerthataresignedand
consecutivelynumberedbythe
author.I
nCanadaprotectedasartistic
worksinaccordancewiththe
abovedefinitiononly.
“pantomimesand
choreographicworks”–
undefinedi
nCanadaprotectedas
dramaticworks
-“choreographicwork”includes
anyworkofchoreography,
whetherornotithasastoryline
“pictorial,graphicandsculptural
works”–undefinedi
nCanadaprotectedasartistic
works
-“engraving”:includesetchings,
lithographs,woodcuts,prints,
andothersimilarworks,not
beingphotographs.



-“photograph”:includesphoto-
lithographandanywork
expressedbyanyprocess
analogoustophotography.
-“sculpture”:includescastor
model.
“motionpictures”:audio-visual
worksconsistingofaseriesof
relatedimageswhich,when
showninsuccession,impartan
impressionofmotion,together
withaccompanyingsoundsif
any;
andother”audio-visualworks”:
worksthatconsistofaseriesof
relatedimageswhichare
intrinsicallyintendedtobe
shownbytheuseofmachinesor
devicessuchasprojectors,
viewers,orelectronic
equipment,togetherwith
accompanyingsounds,ifany,
regardlessofthenatureofthe
material,objects,suchasfilmsor
tapes,inwhichtheworksare
embodied.C
inematographicworksare
protectedasdramaticworks.
“cinematographicwork”:
includesanyworkexpressedby
anyprocessanalogousto
cinematography,whetherornot
accompaniedbyasoundtrack.
InCanadathereisnospecific
definitionofaudio-visualworks.

“architecturalworks”:designofa
buildingasembodiedinany
tangiblemediumofexpression,
includingabuilding,
architecturalplans,ordrawings.
Theworkincludestheoverall
formaswellasthearrangement
andcompositionofspacesand
elementsinthedesign,butdoes
notincludeindividualstandard
features.i
nCanadaprotectedasartistic
works
-“architecturalwork”:any
buildingorstructureorany
modelofabuildingorstructure.
“soundrecordings”:worksthatI
nCanadasoundrecordingsare



resultfromthefixationofaseries
ofmusical,spokenorother
sounds,butnotincludingthe
soundsaccompanyingamotion
pictureorotheraudio-visual
work,regardlessofthenatureof
thematerialobjects,suchas
disks,tapesorother
phonorecords,inwhichtheyare
embodied.n
otprotectedasworksbutas
“objectsofcopyright”
-“soundrecording”:recording,
fixedinanymaterialform,
consistingofsounds,whetheror
notaperformanceofawork,
butexcludesanysoundtrackof
acinematographicwork,where
itaccompaniesthe
cinematographicwork.
Comments:InCanada,inordertobegrantedprotection,asidefrom
beingoriginalandfixed,aworkmustfallwithinoneofthefour
categoriesmentionedabovethatis,literary,dramatic,musicaland
artisticworks.ThereisnosuchobligationintheUS.Thecategoriesof
worksareenumeratedonlyasexamples.
TABLE1.3REGISTRATION

USCopyrightAct(sections
407,408,410,411)C
anadianCopyrightAct
(section53)
Copyrightissecured
automaticallyuponcreationof
thework.Registrationisoptional
(section408).Althoughthereis
anexception.TheCopyrightAct
establishesamandatoryfilling
requirementforworkspublished
intheU.S..Theownerofthe
exclusiverightofpublicationhas
alegalobligationtosendtothe
CopyrightOfficewithin3months
ofpublicationtwocopiesforthe
useoftheLibraryofCongress.
Failuretodosocanresultsin
finesandotherpenaltiesbut
doesnotaffectthecopyright
(section407).
Therearesomeadvantagesof
registrationlikethefactthatitT
heregistrationofaworkisnot
obligatory.Thecopyrightis
securedautomaticallyupon
creationofthework.
Nevertheless,registration
facilitatestheestablishmentof
titleinacopyright.Italsocreates
certainpresumptionsastothe
validityofcopyrightandthe
veracityoftheinformationfound
ontheregistrationcertificate
andtheknowledgeofthird
partiesofthesubsistenceof
copyrightprotection.In
Canada,registrationisnota
prerequisitetothetakingofan
infringementaction.



makespublicthecopyright
claiminawork.Furthermore,the
certificateofaregistration
madebeforeorwithinfiveyears
afterfirstpublicationofthework
shallconstituteprimafacie
evidenceofthevalidityofthe
copyrightandofthefacts
statedinthecertificate(section
410).
Notethatexceptforactionsfor
infringementofcopyrightin
BerneConventionworkswhose
countryoforiginisnottheUnited
Statesandanactionbroughtfor
aviolationoftherightsofthe
authorundersection106A(a)-
RightsofAttributionand
Integrity-,andsubjecttothe
provisionsofsubsection(b)
thereof,noactionfor
infringementofthecopyrightin
anyworkshallbeinstituteduntil
registrationofthecopyright
claimhasbeenmade.
TABLE
1.4UNPROTECTEDWORKS

USCopyrightAct(sections
101,102(a)(b),105)C
anadianCopyrightAct
Arenotprotected:
-unoriginalworks
-worksnotfixedinatangible
formofexpression.S
ameexclusionsthantheU.S.
butarealsonotprotected:
worksthatcannotbeclassified
inoneofthefourcategoriesof
protectedworks.
Ideas:Copyrightprotection
doesnotextendtoanyidea,
procedure,process,system,
methodofoperation,concept,
principle,ordiscovery,I
deas:Thereisnoexpress
provisionofthiskindinthe
CanadianAct,howeverthe
sameexclusionsapplyasaresult
ofthecaselaw.



regardlessoftheforminwhichit
isdescribed,explained,
illustrated,orembodiedinsuch
work(section102(b)).
Onlytheirdescription,
explanation,orillustrationis
protected.(
seetheoverallwordingofthe
CanadianActandits
jurisprudenceinterpretation)

Titles,names,shortphrases,and
slogans;familiarsymbolsor
design,merevariationof
topographicornamentation,
letteringorcolouring,mere
listingsofingredientsorcontents.T
itles:InCanadatitlesare
protectedasliteraryworksonly
whentheyareoriginaland
distinctiveinverylimited
circumstancesandonlywhen
theyareoriginalanddistinctive
andcanbesaytostandalone
asawork.

Worksconsistingentirelyof
informationthatiscommon
propertyandcontainingno
originalauthorship(forinstance:
standardcalendars,heightand
weightcharts,tapemeasures
andrules,andlistsoftables
takenfrompublicdocumentsor
othercommonsources).I
nCanadainformationanddata
belongtothepublicdomain
andthereforearenotprotected.
Howeverworksconsistingmerely
ofdataorinformationare
protectediftheirselectionand
arrangementisoriginal-(see
“Compilations”).

Usefularticles:articleshaving
anintrinsicutilitarianfunction
thatisnotmerelytoportraythe
appearanceortoconvey
information,andarticlesthat
arenormallypartofauseful
article.Americancopyrightlaw
hastakenastrongposition
againsttheprotectionof
functionalelements.According
toAppleComputerInc.v.
MicrosoftCorp.,799F.Supp.
1006(N.D.Cal.1992):”…an
articlewhichhasanyintrinsic
utilitarianfunction”canbeF
unctionalitysections64&64.1:
TheCanadianActforeseesa
verycreativesolutiontothe
questionoffunctionalityand
usefularticles.Theprovisions
havehardlybeeninterpretedby
theCourtsandreadasfollows:
Section64(2)states:
“Non-infringementrecertain
designs
(2)Wherecopyrightsubsistsina
designappliedtoausefularticle

deniedcopyrightprotection
“excepttotheextentthatits
artisticfeaturescanbeidentified
separatelyandarecapableof
existingindependentlyasawork
ofart”.“(section101).
o
rinanartisticworkfromwhich
thedesignisderivedand,byor
undertheauthorityofany
personwhoownsthecopyright
inCanadaorwhoownsthe
copyrightinCanadaorwho
ownsthecopyrightelsewhere,
(a)thearticleisreproducedina
quantityormorethanfiftyor
(b)wherethearticleisaplate,
engraving,orcast,thearticle
isusedforproducingmoreit
shallnotthereafterbean
infringementofthecopyright
onthemoralrightsfor
anyone
(c)toreproducethedesignof
thearticleoradesignnot
differingsubstantiallyfromthe
designofthearticleby:
(i)makingthearticle,or
(ii)makingadrawingorother
reproductioninany
materialformofthe
article,or
(d)todowithanarticle,drawing
orreproductionthatismade
asdescribedinparagraph
(c)anythingthattheowner
ofthecopyrighthasthesole
righttodowiththedesignor
artisticworkinwhichthe
copyrightsubsists.”
Section64.1readsasfollows:
“Non-infringementreuseful
articlefeatures
64.1(1)Thefollowingactsdonot
constituteaninfringementofthe
copyrightormoralrightsina
work:
(a)applyingtoausefularticle

featuresthataredictated
solelybyautilitarianfunction
ofthearticle;
(b)byreferencesolelytoauseful
article,makingadrawingor
otherreproductioninany
materialformofanyfeatures
ofthearticlethatare
dictatedsolelybyautilitarian
functionofthearticle;
(c)doingwithausefularticle
havingonlyfeatures
describedinparagraph(a),
orwithadrawingor
reproductionmadeas
describedinparagraph(b),
anythingthattheowneror
thecopyrighthasthesole
righttodowiththework;and
(d)usinganymethodorprinciple
ofmanufactureor
construction.
Exception
(2)Nothinginsubsection(1)
affects
(a)thecopyright,or
(b)themoralrights,ifany,inany
soundrecording,
cinematographfilmorother
contrivancebymeansof
whichaworkmaybe
mechanicallyreproducedor
performed.
S.C.1997,c.24,s.40.

Comments:
“Despites.64.1,therearestilldifferencesintheapproachtakenunder
CanadianandAmericanlaw.IntheUScopyrightisdeniedto
functionalworksexcepttotheextentthat”artisticfeaturescanbe



identifiedseparately”.InCanada,copyingoffunctionalworksis
exemptedforfeaturesthataredictated”solelybyutilitarianfunction”.
Therearetwodifferences.UndertheAmericanapproach,acourt
mustdeterminewhetherthereareanyseparateartisticfeatures.
UndertheCanadianapproach,acourtmustdeterminewhether
thereareanysolelyutilitarianfeatures.Thisdifferencein”perspective”
couldleadtoadifferenceinthescopeofprotection.Thesecond
differencesisthattheAmericanapproachexcludesfunctionalityfrom
copyrightprotection,whiletheCanadianapproachexemptsthe
copyingoffunctionalfeaturesfrominfringement.InCanada,
copyrightsubsists,butanexemptionisprovided.IntheUS,copyright
doesnotsubsist,eliminatingtheneedforanexemption.This
differencecouldalsoleadtoadifferenceinthescopeofprotection,
becauseexemptionstendtobeconstruedmorenarrowly.”[Morgan,
supranoteiiat186]

TABLE
1.5PROTECTIONOFCOMPILATIONS

USCopyrightAct(sections
101,102,103)C
anadianCopyrightAct
(sections2and2.1)
Section103oftheUSCopyright
Actprovidesthatthesubject
matterofcopyrightasspecified
bysection102includes
compilationsandderivative
works.Howeverthe
interpretationgiventowhatis
protectedinacompilationis
quitedifferentinCanadaandin
theUS.

A”compilation”isaworkformed
bythecollectionand
assemblingofpre-existing
materialsorofdatathatare
selected,co-ordinated,or
arrangedinsuchawaythatthe
resultingworkasawhole
constitutesanoriginalworkof
authorship.ThetermA
“compilation”means:
(a)aworkresultingfromthe
selectionorarrangementof
literary,dramatic,musicalor
artisticworksorofpartsthereof,
or
(b)aworkresultingfromthe
selectionorarrangementof
data(section2).



“compilation”includescollective
works(section101).
(a)Thesubjectmatterof
copyrightasspecifiedbysection
102includescompilationsand
derivativeworks,butprotection
foraworkemployingpre-
existingmaterialinwhich
copyrightsubsistsdoesnot
extendtoanypartoftheworkin
whichsuchmaterialhasbeen
usedunlawfully;
(b)Thecopyrightina
compilationorderivativework
extendsonlytomaterial
contributedbytheauthorof
suchwork,asdistinguishedfrom
thepre-existingmaterial
employedinthework,anddoes
notimplyanyexclusiverightin
thepre-existingmaterial.The
copyrightinsuchworkis
independentof,anddoesnot
affectorenlargethescope,
duration,ownership,or
subsistenceof,anycopyright
protectioninthepre-existing
material.(
1)Acompilationcontaining
twoormoreofthecategoriesof
literary,dramatic,musicalor
artisticworksshallbedeemedto
beacompilationofthe
categoriesmakingupthemost
substantialpartofthe
compilation;
(2)Themerefactthataworkis
includedinacompilationdoes
notincrease,decreaseor
otherwiseaffecttheprotection
conferredbythisActinrespect
ofthecopyrightintheworkor
themoralrightinrespectofthe
work(section2.1).
Comments:
AccordingtothedecisionrenderedinFeistPublications,Inc.v.Rural
Tel.ServicesCo.499US340(1991),theambitofprotectionafforded
tocompilationsintheUSisrelativelynarrowandlimitedtotheoriginal
characteristicsofthecompilationsuchasselectionandorganisation.
InCanada,therecentdecisionoftheFederalCourtofAppealin
Tele-Direct(Publications)Inc.v.AmericanBusinessInformationInc.
(1998)2C.F.22,hasbroughttheCanadianpositioninlinewith
positiontraditionallyadoptedbytheU.S.caselawonthesubject..
TABLE
1.6COPYRIGHTANDTHENATIONALORIGINOFTHEWORK



USCopyrightAct
(sections101,104)C
anadianCopyrightAct
(sections2.2(1),5)
1.Publication-definition-1.Publication–definition-
“publication”isthedistributionof
copiesorphonorecordsofa
worktothepublicbysaleor
othertransferofownership,orby
rental,lease,orlending.The
offeringtodistributecopiesor
phonorecordstoagroupof
personsforpurposesoffurther
distribution,publicperformance,
orpublicdisplay,constitutes
publication.Apublic
performanceordisplayofa
workdoesnotofitselfconstitute
publication(section101).
“Publication”means:
(I)makingcopiesofthework
availabletothepublic
(ii)theconstructionofan
architecturalwork,and
(iii)theincorporationofan
artisticworkintoanarchitectural
work.
Publicationdoesnotincludethe
performanceinpublic,or
communicationtothepublicby
telecommunication,ofawork,
theexhibitioninpublicofan
artisticworkortheissueof
photographsandengravingsof
sculpturalandarchitectural
works(section2.2(1)).
Comments:IntheUS,publicationappearstohaveacommercial
connotation.ThisisnotthecaseinCanada.

2.Unpublishedworksandtheir
nationalorigin-protection-2
.Unpublishedworksandtheir
nationalorigin-protection-
Protectionisavailablefor
unpublishedworksregardlessof
thenationalityordomicileofthe
author,iftheysatisfythecriteria
oforiginalityandfixation
(section104(a)).A
ccordingtosection5(1)(a)of
theCanadianCopyrightAct,
copyrightshallsubsistin
Canada,ineveryoriginalliterary
dramatic,musicalandartistic
work,whetherpublishedor
unpublished,iftheauthorwas,
atthedateofthemakingofthe
work,acitizenorsubjectof,ora
personresidentin,atreaty
country.
Inacinematographicwork,
copyrightshallalsosubsistifthe
makeris,atthedateofthe
makingofthework,(i)acitizen



orsubjectof,oraperson
residentin,atreatycountry,or
(ii)inthecaseofcorporation,ifit
haditsheadquartersinatreaty
country(section5(1)(b)).
3.Publishedworksandtheir
nationalorigin-protection-
(section104(b))3
.Publishedworksandtheir
nationalorigin–protection-
(section5)
Publishedworksaresubjectto
copyrightprotectionif:
(1)onthedateofthefirst
publication,oneormoreofthe
authorsisanationalor
domiciliaryoftheUnitedStates,
orisanationalordomiciliary,or
sovereignauthorityofaforeign
nationthatispartytoa
copyrighttreatytowhichthe
UnitedStatesisalsoaparty,oris
astatelessperson,whereverthat
personmaybedomiciliated,
(2)theworkisfirstpublishedin
theUnitedStatesorinaforeign
nationthatonthedateoffirst
publication,isapartytothe
UniversalCopyrightConvention
ortheBerneConvention,
(3)theworkisfirstpublishedby
theUnitedNationsoranyofits
specialisedagencies,orbythe
OrganisationofAmericanStates.
ThePresidentmay,athis
discretion,affordprotectiontoa
specificcountryonthebasisof
reciprocity(section104(b)).C
opyrightwillsubsistina
publishedworkiftheauthorwas,
atthedateofthemakingofthe
work,acitizenorsubjectof,ora
personresidentin,atreaty
country(section5(1)(a)).
Itwillalsosubsistinaworkifits
firstpublication,isinsucha
quantityastosatisfythe
reasonabledemandsofthe
publichavingregardtothe
natureofthework,occurredina
treatycountry(section5(1)(c)(i)).
TheMinister,mayathis
discretion,affordprotectiontoa
specificcountryonthebasisof
reciprocity(section5(2)).
Comments:
-WorksfirstpublishedinaWTOcountrywillbeprotectedinCanada
butnotnecessarilyintheUS.
-UnliketheUS,Canadadoesnotseemtoprovideprotection
specificallytoworksoftheUNorganisation.Howevertheseworkswill
beprotectediftheauthorisacitizenorresidentofatreatycountryor
iftheyarefirstpublishedinatreatycountry.



2
WHOCANCLAIMCOPYRIGHT
TABLE2.1FIRSTOWNER

USCopyrightAct(sections
101,201,202)C
anadianCopyrightAct
(section13)
Theauthoristhefirstcopyright
owner(section201(a)).T
heauthoristhefirstcopyright
owner
Comments:
Althoughtheterm”author”isnotdefinedineitherAct,itrefersin
principletothepersonwhocreatedthework,whoexpressedanidea
inanyoriginalmaterialform.
InCanada,acorporationmayincertainspecificinstancesbe
consideredtheauthorofaworkasitconcernsphotographs(see
sections10).

Inthecaseofa”workmadefor
hire”theemployernotthe
employeeisconsideredtobe
theauthor(section201(b)).
A”workmadeforhire”means:
(1)aworkpreparedbyan
employeewithinthescopeofhis
orheremployment;or
(2)aworkspeciallyorderedor
commissionedforuseasa
contributiontoacollectivework,
asapartofamotionpictureor
otheraudio-visualwork,asa
translation,asssupplementary
work,asacompilation,asan
instructionaltext,asanswer
materialforatest,orasanatlas,
ifthepartiesexpresslyagreeina
writteninstrumentsignedby
themthattheworkshallbe
consideredaworkmadefor
hire.I
nthecaseofaworkmadeby
anemployee,underacontract
ofservicesorapprenticeship,in
thecourseofhisemployment,

thefirstownerofcopyrightisthe
employerandnotthe
employee.Wheretheworkisa
contributiontoanewspaper,
magazineorsimilarperiodical,
thereshall,intheabsenceof
anyagreementtothecontrary,
bedeemedtobereservedto
theauthorarighttorestrainthe
publicationofthework,
otherwisethanaspartofa
newspaper,magazineorsimilar
periodical(section13(3)).



(section101)
IntheUS,inthecaseofawork
madeforhire(section201(b)),
theauthorisconsideredtobe
theemployernottheemployee.
W
hereinthecaseofan
engraving,photographor
portrait,theplateorother
originalwasorderedbysome
otherpersonforvaluable
consideration,andthe
considerationwaspaid,in
pursuanceofthatorder,inthe
absenceofanyagreementto
thecontrary,thepersonby
whomtheplateorotheroriginal
wasorderedshallbethefirst
ownerofthecopyright(section
13(2)).
Copyrightprotectionisnot
availableforworksoftheUS
Government.(section105).W
hereaworkhasbeen
preparedorpublishedbyor
underthedirectionofthe
governmentdepartment,the
copyrightintheworkshall,
subjecttoanyagreementwith
theauthor,belongtoHer
Majesty(section12).
Mereownershipofabook,
manuscript,painting,orany
othercopyorphonorecorddoes
notgivethepossessorthe
copyright.Thetransferof
ownershipofanymaterial
objectthatembodiesa
protectedworkdoesnotofitself
conveyanyrightsinthe
copyright(section202).A
lthough,thisprincipleisnot
expressedintheAct,the
Canadiancopyrightlaw
distinguishestheworkfromthe
materialobjectinwhichitis
embodied.Thereforeownership
ofthematerialobjectdoesnot
necessarilyimplyownershipof
copyright.
TABLE2.2JOINTWORKS



USCopyrightAct
(sections101,201)C
anadianCopyrightAct
(section2)
Theauthorsofajointworkare
co-ownersofthecopyrightin
thework,unlessthereisan
agreementtothecontrary
(section201(a)).T
heauthorsofaworkofjoint
authorshipareco-ownersofthe
copyrightinthework,unless
thereisanagreementtothe
contrary.
A”jointworks”meansawork
preparedbytwoormore
authorswiththeintentionthat
theircontributionsbeamerged
intoinseparableor
interdependentpartsofa
unitarywhole(section101).
a”collectivework”isawork,
suchasaperiodicalissue,
anthology,orencyclopaedia,in
whichanumberofcontributions,
constitutingseparateand
independentworksin
themselves,areassembledinto
acollectivework(section101).
Anda”compilation”isawork
formedbythecollectionand
assemblingofpre-existing
materialorofdatathatare
selected,co-ordinated,or
arrangedinsuchwaythatthe
resultingworkasawhole
constitutesanoriginalworkof
authorship.Thetermcompilation
includethecollectivework
(section101).
A
“workofjointauthorship”
means:aworkproducedbythe
collaborationoftwoormore
authorsinwhichthecontribution
ofoneisnotdistinctfromthe
contributionoftheotherauthor
orauthors.
“collectiveworks”means:
(a)anencyclopaedia,
dictionary,yearbookorsimilar
work;
(b)anewspaper,review,
magazineorsimilarperiodical;
and
(c)anyworkwrittenindistinct
partsbydifferentauthors,orin
whichworksorpartsofworksof
differentauthorsare
incorporated.
And”compilations”means:
(a)workresultingfromthe
selectionorarrangementof
literary,dramatic,musical,or
artisticworkthereof;or
(b)aworkresultingfromthe
selectionorarrangementof
data.

Comments
Inbothstatutesthesenotionsaresimilar,however,theyarenot
affordedthesametreatment.InCanadianaswellasinAmerican
Law,theauthorsofaworkofjointauthorshipareco-authorsofthat
workandco-ownersofthecopyrightattachedthereto,sincethe
contributionofoneauthorcannotbepartedformthatofanother.



Thesituationisdifferentwithrespecttocollectiveworks.IntheUSthe
notionofcollectiveworkcomprisecompilationsandtheownerof
copyrightinthecollectiveworksisthepersonwhohasgathered
togetherthedifferentcontributions(section201(c)).Copyrightin
eachseparatecontributiontoaperiodicalorothercollectiveworkis,
however,distinctfromthecopyrightinthecollectiveworkasawhole
andvestsinitiallywiththeauthorofthecontribution.Intheabsence
ofanexpresstransferofthecopyrightorofanyrightsunderit,the
ownerofcopyrightinthecollectiveworkispresumedtohave
acquiredonlytheprivilegeofreproducinganddistributingthe
contributionaspartofthatparticularcollectivework,anyrevisionof
thatcollectivework,andanylatercollectiveworkinthesameseries.
InCanadathenotionsofcollectiveworkandcompilationsare
independent.Theauthorofacompilationisthepersonwhoselected
andarrangeditscomponents,butthereisnosuchspecificationfora
collectivework.Theauthorofacontributiontothecollectivework
remainstheownerofthecopyrightattachedthereto,unlessitis
madebyanemployeeinthecourseofitsemployment,andunless
thereisanassignmentofcopyright.
TABLE
2.3TRANSFEROFCOPYRIGHT

USCopyrightLaw(sections
115,201(d),203,204)C
anadianCopyrightLaw
(section13(4))
Anyorallofthecopyright
owner’sexclusiverightsorany
subdivisionofthoserightsmay
betransferredbyanymeansof
conveyance(section201(d)).
Thetransferofcopyright
ownershipisnotvalidunlessthat
transferisinwritingandsigned
bytheowneroftherights
conveyed,oritsdulyauthorised
agent(section204(a)).
T
heownerofthecopyrightina
workmayassigntheright,either
whollyorpartially,andeither
generallyorsubjecttolimitations
relatingtoterritory,mediumor
sectorofthemarketorother
limitationsrelatingtothescope
oftheassignment,andeitherfor
thewholetermofthecopyright
orforanyotherpartthereof,
andmaygrantanyinterestin
therightbylicence.
Thelicencemaybeexclusiveor
nonexclusive.
Noassignmentorgrantisvalid



unlessitisinwriting,signedby
theowneroftherightinrespect
ofwhichtheassignmentorgrant
ismade,orbyitsdulyauthorised
agent.

Inthecaseofnondramatic
musicalworks,theexclusive
rightstoproduceanddistribute
tothepubliccopiesor
phonorecordsofthe
copyrightedwork,aresubject
tocompulsorylicensingunder
theconditionsspecifiedby
section115oftheAct.B
illC-32haseliminatedthe
compulsorylicensingscheme.
Acopyrightmayalsobe
bequeathedbywillorpassas
personalpropertybythe
applicablelawsifintestate
succession(section201(d)(1)).
Thepresentlawpermits
terminationofagrantofrights
after35yearsofthedeathofthe
author,undercertainconditions
andbyservingwrittennoticeon
thetransfereewithinspecified
timelimits(section203).S
amethingforCanada.
Whentheauthoristhefirst
ownerofcopyright,no
assignmentofcopyrightandno
grantofanyinteresttherein,
madebyhimotherwisethanby
will,afterJune4,1921,is
operativebeyondtheexpiration
of25yearsfromthedeathofthe
author.Afterthatperiodthe
rightreturnstothelegal
representativesoftheauthor,as
partofitsestate.Anyagreement
enteredintobytheauthorasto
thedispositionofsuch
reversionaryinterestisvoid.
(section14(1)).
3DURATIONOFCOPYRIGHT

USCopyrightLaw(sections
302,303,304)C
anadianCopyrightLaw
(sections6,7,9,10,11.1,12)




1.Worksoriginallycreated
(fixedintangibleform)onof
afterJanuary1,1978:

Automaticallyprotectedfrom
themomentofitscreationandis
ordinarilygivenatermenduring
fortheauthor’slifeplus50years
afterhisdeath(section302(a)).
Inthecaseofajointwork
preparedbytwoormore
authorswhodidnot”workfor
hire”,thetermlastsfor50years
afterthelastsurvivingauthor’s
death(section302(b)).
Forworksmadeforhire,
anonymousorpseudonymous
works,copyrightwillsubsist
during75yearsafterfirst
publicationor100yearsfrom
creation,whicheverisshorter
(section302(c).G
eneralprinciple:
Copyrightshallsubsistduringthe
lifeoftheauthor,theremainder
ofthecalendaryearinwhich
theauthordies,and50years
followingtheendofthat
calendaryear(section6).
Inthecaseofaworkofjoint
authorship,copyrightshallsubsist
duringthelifeoftheauthorwho
diedlast,fortheremainingof
thecalendaryearinwhichthat
authordies,and50years
followingtheendofthat
calendaryear(section9(1)).
Exceptions:

Photographs:iftheownerofa
photographisacorporation,the
termistheremainderoftheyear
ofthemakingoftheinitial
negativeplus50years(section
10).
Anonymousandpseudonymous
works:copyrightshallsubsistfor
theearliestofthefollowing
terms:
(a)theremainderofthe
calendaryearofthefirst
publicationoftheworkand50
yearsfollowingtheendofthat
year,
(b)theremainderofthe
calendaryearofthemakingof
theworkand75yearsfollowing
theendofthatyear(section
6.1).
2.Worksoriginallycreated
(fixedintangibleform)before
January1,1978,butnot
publishedorregisteredbythatP
osthumousworks:isaworkin
whichcopyrightstillsubsistsat
thedateofthedeathofthe
author,hasnotbeenpublished



date:

Thedurationofcopyrightin
theseworkswillgenerallybe
computedinthesamewayas
forworkscreatedonorafter
January1,1978.

Howeverinnocase,willtheterm
ofcopyrightforworksinthis
categoriesexpirebefore
December31,2002,andfora
workpublishedonorbefore
December31,2002,thetermwill
notexpirebeforeDecember31
2027(section303).o
rperformedinpublic,insuch
casescopyrightshallsubsistuntil
publicationorperformance,as
thecasemaybe,plus50years
followingtheendofthat
calendaryear(section7)
Cinematographicworks:
cinematographicworksare
dramaticworksandare
protectedassuch.Howevera
cinematographicworkinwhich
thearrangementoractingform
orthecombinationofincidents
representeddonotgivethe
workadramaticcharacter,is
onlyprotectedfor50years
followingtheendofthe
calendaryearofthework’sfirst
publication.Iftheworkisnot
publishedbeforetheexpiration
of50yearsfollowingtheendof
thecalendaryearofitsmaking,
theworkwillbeprotectedfor50
yearsfollowingtheendofthat
calendaryear(section11.1).
WorksoftheCrown:copyright
willsubsistfor50yearsfollowing
theendofthecalendaryearof
itspublication(section12).
3.Worksoriginallycreated
(fixedintangibleform)and
publishedorregisteredbefore
January1,1978:

Theseworkswereprotectedfor
afirsttermof28years.During
thelastyearofthefirstterm,the
copyrightaseligiblefora
renewaltermof28years.This
termwasextendedto47years
bythecurrentlaw.Therefore,in



generaltheseworksareeligible
foratotaltermofprotectionof
75yearsformtheirpublicationor
registration,iftheworkwas
registeredinunpublishedform
(section304).
4
WHATCOPYRIGHTIS
TABLE4.
1PROTECTEDRIGHTS

USCopyrightLaw(sections
101,106,109)C
anadianCopyrightLaw
(sections2,3)
Theauthorhastheexclusive
righttodoandauthoriseanyof
thefollowing:C
opyrightincludestheexclusive
righttodoandauthoriseanyof
thefollowing:
reproductionrightreproductionright
-Toreproducethecopyrighted
workincopiesorphonorecords
(section106(1)).
-Toproduceorreproducethe
workoranysubstantialpart
thereofinanymaterialform
whatever.
Comments:
ThereproductionrighthasthesameapplicationinCanadaandinUS.
“Copies”aredefinedintheUSCopyrightActas”materialobjects
otherthanphonorecords,inwhichaworkisfixedbyanymethodnow
knownorlaterdeveloped,andfromwhichtheworkcanbe
perceived,reproduced,orotherwisecommunicated,eitherdirectly
orwiththeaidofamachineordevice.Thetermcopiesincludesthe
materialobject,otherthanaphonorecord,inwhichtheworkisfirst
fixed.”
InCanadaalthoughtheterm”copy”isnotdefined,itisintendedto
havethesamemeaning.
“Phonorecords”aredefinedintheUSCopyrightActas”material
objectsinwhichsounds,otherthanthoseaccompanyingamotion
pictureorotheraudio-visualwork,arefixedbyanymethodnow
knownorlaterdeveloped,andfromwhichthesoundscanbe



perceived,reproduced,orotherwisecommunicated,eitherdirectly
orwiththeaidofamachineordevice.Theterm”phonorecords”
includesthematerialobjectinwhichthesoundsarefirstfixed.
InCanadaan”audiorecordingmedium”isalmostsimilar:”recording
medium,regardlessofitsmaterialform,ontowhichasoundrecording
maybereproducedandthatisofakindordinarilyusedbyindividual
consumersforthatpurpose,excludinganyprescribedkindof
recordingmedium”.
adaptationrightadaptationright
-Topreparederivativeworks
baseduponthecopyrighted
work(section106(2).-
Toproduce,reproduce,
performorpublishany
translationofthework;
-Toconvertadramaticwork
intoanon-dramaticwork;
-Toconvertanondramatic
workintoadramaticwork,by
wayofperformancetothe
publicorotherwise;
-Inthecaseofaliterary,
dramaticormusicalwork,to
makeanysoundrecording,
cinematographfilmorother
contrivancebymeansofwhich
theworkmaybemechanically
reproducedorperformed;
-Toreproduce,adapt,and
publiclypresentanyworkasa
cinematographicwork.
Comments:TheUSprotectionforderivativeworksseemstobewider
thantheoneaffordedinCanada.Beforethelastmodificationtothe
CanadianCopyrightAct,theadaptationrightwaslimitedtothe
actionsspecifiedinsection3.Howevertheuseoftheword”including”
inthenewsection3insteadof”means”(oldsection3)seemstoimply
thatfromnowonotherformsofadaptationmaybecoveredbythe
exclusiveright.

Distributionrightdistributionright



Todistributecopiesor
phonorecordsofthe
copyrightedworktothepublic
bysaleorothertransferof
ownership,orbyrental,lease,or
lending(section106(3).
Nevertheless,theownerofa
particularcopyorphonorecord
lawfullymade,oranyperson
authorisedbyhim,withoutthe
authorityofthecopyrightowner,
tosellorotherwisedisposeofthe
possessionofthatcopyor
phonorecord(section109(a)).

r
entalrightrentalright
Hastherighttodistributecopies
orphonorecordsofthe
copyrightedworktothepublic
byrental(section106(3)).
Unlessauthorisedbytheowners
ofthecopyright,neitherthe
ownerofaparticular
phonorecordnoranypersonin
possessionofaparticularcopy
ofacomputerprogram,may,
forthepurposeofdirector
indirectcommercialadvantage,
disposeorauthorisethedisposal
ofthepossessionofthat
phonorecordorcomputer
programbyrental,lease,or
lending,orbyanyotheraceor
practiceinthenatureofrental,
leaseorlending(section109
(A)).
Section109(A))doesnotapply
toI)acomputerprogramwhich
embodiedinamachineor
productandwhichcannotbe-
Torentoutacomputer
programthatcanbe
reproducedintheordinary
courseofitsuse,otherthanbya
reproductionduringits
executioninconjunctionwitha
machine,deviceorcomputer.
-Inthecaseofamusicalwork,
torentoutasoundrecordingin
whichtheworkisembodied.
Anarrangement,whateverits
form,constitutesarentalofa
computerprogramorsound
recordingif,andonlyif:
(a)itisinsubstancearental,
havingregardtothe
circumstances;and
(b)itisenteredintowiththe
motiveofgaininrelationtothe
overalloperationsoftheperson
whorentsoutthecomputer
programorsoundrecordingas
thecasemaybe.



copiedduringtheordinary
operationoruseofthemachine
orproduct;orii)acomputer
programembodiedinorusedin
conjunctionwithalimited
purposecomputerthatis
designedforplayingvideo
gamesandmaybedesignedfor
otherpurposes(section109(B)).
Comments:
1.Distributionright:
TheAmericandistributionrightisequivalenttotheCanadian
publicationright.ThemaindifferenceisthatintheUSpublication
occursonlywhenthepossessionofworksistransferredtothepublic.
ThisobligationdoesnotseemtoexistinCanadawheremaking
copiesavailabletothepublicissufficient(seecommenton
publication).
2.Rentalright:
TherentalrightwasintroducedinCanadabytheNAFTAagreement.
NAFTAsetsforththebasicscharacteristicsofthisright.Itistherefore
normalthatCanadaandtheUShaveasimilarprovisionsonthis
subject.
3.Lendingright:
ThereisnolendingrightinCanada.
publicperformancerightpublicperformanceright
-Toperformthecopyrighted
workpublicly,inthecaseof
literary,musical,dramatic,and
choreographicworks,
pantomimes,andmotion
picturesandotheraudio-visual
works(section106(4));
-Inthecaseofsound
recordings,toperformthework
publiclybymeansofadigital
audiotransmission(section
106(6)).-
Toperformtheworkinpublic.

-Todisplaythecopyrighted
workpublicly,inthecaseof
literary,musical,and-
Topresentatapublic
exhibition,forapurposeother
thansaleorhire,anartisticwork



choreographicworks,
pantomimesandpictorial,
graphic,orsculpturalworks,
includingtheindividualimages
ofamotionpictureorother
audio-visualwork(section
106(5));c
reatedafterJune7,1988,other
thanamap,chartorplan.
Comments:
InCanada:”performance”means”anyacousticorvisual
representationofawork,performer’sperformance,soundrecording
orcommunicationsignal,includingarepresentationmadebymeans
ofanymechanicalinstrument,radioreceivingsetoratelevision
receivingset.”.
And”performer’sperformance”meansanyofthefollowingwhen
donebyaperformer:
(a)performanceofanartistic,dramaticandmusicalwork,whetheror
nottheworkwaspreviouslyfixedinanymaterialform,andwhether
ornotthework’stermofcopyrightprotectionunderthisActhas
expired;
(b)arecitationorreadingofaliterarywork,whetherornotthework’s
termofcopyrightprotectionunderthisActhasexpired;
(c)animprovisationofadramaticwork,whetherornotthe
improvisedworkisbasedonapre-existingwork(section2).
IntheUS:”toperform”aworkmeans”torecite,render,play,dance,or
actit,eitherdirectlyorbymeansofanydeviceorprocessor,inthe
caseofamotionpictureorotheraudio-visualwork,toshowits
imagesinanysequenceortomakethesoundsaccompanyingit
audible(section101).And,”todisplay”aworkmeans”toshowacopy
ofit,eitherdirectlyorbymeansofafilm,slide,televisionimage,or
anyotherorprocess,orinthecaseofamotionpictureorother
audio-visualwork,toshowindividualimagesnonsequentially”.
Therighttocommunicatetheworktothepublicby
telecommunicationcouldhavebeenincludedinthepublic
performanceright.However,theinterpretationgiveninCanadato
thewords”inpublic”wasnotwideenoughtoincludethenormal
circleofafamily,orpersonssharingthesameabode,thesame
housingcomplexorthesamehotelroom,forinstance.Therefore,
communicationsmadetothosepersonsinparticularwereprivate
communications.Accordingly,radiocommunicationsor
telecommunicationsarenotcommunicationsmadetothepublicbut



aseriesofprivatecommunicationsnotcoveredbycopyright.To
avoidthissituation,aspecificright,therighttocommunicatethe
worktothepublicbytelecommunication,wasgranted.
AccordingtotheUSCopyrightAct,toperformordisplayawork
“publicly”(orpublicperformanceright)means:
(1)toperformordisplayitataplaceopentothepublicorattheany
placewhereasubstantialnumberofpersonsoutsideofanormal
circleofafamilyanditssocialacquaintancesisgathered;or
(2)totransmitorotherwisecommunicateaperformanceordisplayof
theworktoaplacespecifiedbyclause(1)ortothepublic,bymeans
ofanydeviceorprocess,whetherthemembersofthepublic
capableofreceivingtheperformanceordisplayreceiveitinthe
sameplaceorinseparateplacesandatthesametimeoratdifferent
time(section101)
To”transmit”aperformanceoradisplayistocommunicateitbyany
deviceorprocesswherebyimagesorsoundsarereceivedbeyond
theplacefromwhichtheyaresent.
ThereforeintheUStherighttoperformordisplayaworkincludes
whatwecallinCanadatherighttocommunicatetheworktothe
publicbytelecommunications.
TABLE4.2COPYRIGHTINFRINGEMENT

USCopyrightLaw(section501)CanadianCopyrightLaw
(sections3(1),27)
“Toprevailinaninfringement
actiontheplaintiffneedto
proveonlytwoelements:
plaintiff’sownershipofthe
copyright,anddefendant’s
copyingofconstituentelements
oftheworkthatareoriginal.The
formerelementrequiresproofof
originalityintheauthor,
copyrightabilityofsubject
matter,propercitizenshipstatus
oftheauthor,compliancewith
applicableformalitiesand,iftheC
opyrightgivestheexclusive
righttodocertainthings
includingreproducingthework
inanymaterialform.Thereisa
reproductionoftheworkwhen
theworkisreproducedinfullor
whenasubstantialpartofitis
taken.Reproductionmeans
copyingandthequestion
whethertherehasbeencopying
ofasubstantialpartofawork
dependsmoreonthequality
thanonthequantityofwhat



plaintiffisotherthantheauthor,
properchainoftitlefromthe
author.Afiledregistration
certificatecreatesa
presumptionintheplaintiff’s
favourwithrespecttoeachof
thosefactorsexceptchainof
titles.Therefore,thefirstelement
iseffectivelyprovedby
tenderingaregistration
certificateand,foranon-author
plaintiff,proofoftransferfrom
theauthor.Primafacieproofof
thefirstelementbeingtypically
straightforward,thisleavesthe
plaintiffwiththeburdenof
provingcopyingbythe
defendant..[P.Geller,M.
Nimmer,Internationalcopyright
lawandpractice,NewYork,vol.
1-2,MatthewBender,1997at
8(1)(a)(i).]w
astaken.

Section27(1)saysthatitisan
infringementforanypersonto
do,withouttheconsentofthe
ownerofthecopyright,anything
thatbythisActonlytheowner
hastherighttodo.ThisSection
createsdirectorprimary
infringement.Itmustalwaysbe
readinconjunctionwithSection
3whichsetsoutwhatonlythe
ownerofcopyrighthastheright
todo.
Section27(2)establishesthatitis
aninfringementtoa)sellorrent
out;b)distributetosuchan
extentastoaffectprejudicially
theownerofthecopyright;c)by
wayoftradedistribute,expose
orofferforsaleorrental,or
exhibitinpublic;d)possessfor
thepurposesofdoinganything
referredtoinparagraphsa)to
c);ore)importintoCanadafor
thepurposeofdoinganything
referredtoinparagraphsa)to
c),acopyofawork,sound
recordingsorfixationofa
performer’sperformanceorofa
communicationsignalthatthe
personknowsorshouldhave
knowninfringescopyrightor
wouldinfringecopyrightifithad
beenmadeinCanadabythe
personwhomadeit.This
provisionrelatestowhatiscalled
indirectinfringementor
secondaryinfringement.
.



Substantialsimilarityanalysis.Section27createstwokindsof
infringement.Directorprimary
infringementontheonehand
andindirectofsecondary
infringementontheother.
Primaryinfringementiscarried
outbythepersonthatactually
copiesthework.Fortheretobe
afindingofdirectinfringement,
thecopyrightownermustprove
thattheinfringerhadaccessto
theworkandthattherewas
copying.Section27(2)deals
withsecondaryinfringement
whichoccurswhenaperson
otherthanthepersonwho
actuallymadetheillegalcopies,
carriesoutcertaindealingswith
respecttoinfringingworks.A
distinguishingfeaturebetween
thetwotypesofinfringementis
therequirementofknowledge
onthepartoftheinfringerinthe
caseofsecondaryinfringement.
TABLE4.3REMEDIES

USCopyrightLaw(sections
411,502,503,504,505,506,509)C
anadianCopyrightLaw(
sections35,38,39,
42,43,44.1,44.2)
Theremediesare:actual
damagesandprofits(s.504b),
statutorydamages(s.504c),
costsandattorney’sfees(s.505
),injunctions(s.502),
impoundment(s.503a),
destructionofthecopies(s.503
b)andcriminaloffences(s.506
).
Section509establishesaseizureT
heremediesaredamages(s.
35(1)),accountsofprofits(s.
35(1)),exemplaryorpunitive
damages(s.38(7)),Antonpillar
Orders(s.470FederalCourt
Rules),seizurebefore
judgement(s.38(1)(2)),
destructionofthecopies(s.
38(2)),injunctions,(s.39)),
criminaloffences(s.42&43),
anyorderconsidered




andforfeitureright.
Actualdamagesmustbe
proven.a
ppropriate(s.44.1,44.2).In
theProvinceofQuebec,a
seizureoftheoffendinggoods
maybemadebefore
judgementinrespectof
infringingcopies.Ineffect,the
Plaintiffseizespropertyhe
allegesheownssincethe
CopyrightActscreatesa
presumptiontotheeffectthat
theownerofcopyrightisthe
ownerofinfringingcopies.
Theplaintiffcansueforstatutory
damages(s.504b).Underthe
U.S.statutorydamageselection,
theplaintiffissparedthe
expenseofprovingdamages
andprofitsuptoamaximumof
20000.Thatremedyisavailable
whentheinjuredpartycannot
provedamagesand
defendant’sprofits.Itisan
absoluteright.Itisalsoan
alternativeremedy.
I
tisnotnecessarytoprove
“actual”or“‘specific”damages
becausedamagesareatlarge.
However,theplaintiffisrequired
toprovedamagesderivedfrom
theinfringement.Anaccountof
profitsfollowsadifferent
procedureandisdiscretionaryin
nature.OncethePlaintiffproves
Defendant’sgrosssalesofthe
infringingarticles,Defendantis
requiretoproveeveryelement
ofcostclaimedbyhimin
reductionofisliability.

Insomecases,theworkmustbe
registeredbeforeinstituting
proceedings(section411)(see
thetableonregistration).T
heworkdoesn’thavetobe
registered.
TABLE
4.4MORALRIGHTS

USCopyrightLaw(section106A)CanadianCopyrightLaw
(sections.14.1,14.2,28)
IntheUSonlyauthorsofawork
ofvisualartareentitledtomoral
rights.
TheauthorofaworkofvisualartT
heauthorofaworkhasthe
righttobeassociatedwiththe
workasitsauthor,bynameor
underapseudonymortheright
toremainanonymous.



hastheright:
(1)toclaimauthorshipofthat
workandtopreventtheuseof
hisnameastheauthorofany
workofvisualartwhichhedid
notcreate;
(2)preventtheuseofhisname
astheauthoroftheworkinthe
eventofadistortion,mutilation,
orothermodificationofthework
whichwouldbeprejudicialtohis
orherhonourorreputation;

(3)topreventanyintentional
distortion,
mutilation,orothermodification
ofthatworkwhichwouldbe
prejudicialtohishonouror
reputation;and

(4)topreventanydestructionof
awork
ofrecognisedstature.

Healsohastherighttothe
integrityofhiswork.Thisrightis
violatediftheworkis,tothe
prejudicetothehonouror
reputationoftheauthor
destroyed,mutilatedor
otherwisemodified,orusedin
associationwithaproduct,
servicecauseorinstitution
(section14.1).
Moralrightsinrespectofawork
subsistsforthesametermasthe
copyrightinthework(section
14.2).
COMMENTS
IntheUS,themoralrightsprotectionofferedisverylimitedbecauseit
onlyappliestovisualart.Thoserightscanbewaivediftheauthor
expresslyagreestosuchwaiverinawritteninstrumentsignedbyhim
(section106A(e)).Nevertheless,ownershipofthemoralrightscannot
betransferred.
InCanada,allworksareprotectedunderthemoralrightsdoctrine.
Theauthormaywaivehismoralrightinwholeorinpart.Forinstance,
anauthormayacceptnottoassertpaternityinaworkbutrefuseto
abandonhisintegrityright.Thereisnoparticularrequirementwith
respecttotheforminwhichawaivercanbemade.Furthermore,a
waivercanbeexpressorimplied.Moralrightscannot,underany
circumstances,beassigned.Thearetransferredatdeathtotheheirs
oflegateesoftheauthor.Finally,wheretheauthorofaworkandthe
owneroftheworkarenotoneandthesameperson,theauthor



alwaysretainsmoralrightsinthework.

TABLE
5LIMITATIONSOFCOPYRIGHT

USCopyrightLaw(section107)CanadianCopyrightLaw(
sections29to29.2)
fairusefairdealing
“fairuse”forpurposessuchas
criticism,comment,news
reporting,teaching(including
multiplecopiesforclassroom
use),scholarship,orresearch,is
notaninfringementofcopyright.”
fairdealing”
-forpurposeofresearchor
privatestudydoesnotinfringe
copyright
Indeterminingwhethertheuse
madeofaworkinanyparticular
caseisafairusethefactorsto
beconsideredshallinclude:
(1)thepurposeandcharacter
oftheuse,includingwhether
suchuseisofcommercialnature
orisfornonprofiteducational
purposes;
(2)thenatureofthecopyrighted
work;
(3)theamountandsubsidiaryof
theportionusedinrelationto
thecopyrightedworkasa
whole;and
(4)theeffectoftheuseupon
thepotentialmarketfororvalue
ofthecopyrightedwork.
Thefactthataworkis
unpublishedshallnotitselfbara
findingoffairuseifsuchfinding
ismadeuponconsiderationof
alltheabovefactors.-
forthepurposeofcriticism,
reviewornewsreportingdoes
notinfringecopyrightifthe
followingarementioned:
(a)thesource;and
(b)ifgiveninthesource,the
nameoftheauthor.

Comments:
1.Definitionoffairdealing
InCanada,asintheUS,themainandmostknownexceptionto



copyrightinfringementis”fairdealing”or”fairuse”.
ThereisnotintheCanadianCopyrightActageneralexceptionoffair
dealing.Sections29to29.2provideforafairdealingexception,but
limitittoparticularpurposes.ThereforetheCanadianexceptionisfar
frombeingaswideastheAmericanfairuse.InCampbellv.Actuff-
Rose,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesruledthataparodymay
constitutefairuseofcopyrightedwork.InCanadasuchinterpretation
couldhardlybegiven.Sections29to29.2areclear,fairdealingis
acceptedasadefencetocopyrightinfringementonlyforthe
purposesofresearch,orprivatestudy,and,oncertainconditions,for
criticism,reviewornewsreporting.Parodyisnotcoveredbythe
exception.
MoreovertheCanadianCopyrightActdoesnotgivethecriteriato
considerindeterminingwhetheraparticularuseofaworkisafair
dealingofthatwork.ItislefttoCourtstodecide.InHubbardv.Vosper
(1972)2W.L.R.383,p.393,theCourtunderlinesthedifficultyof
defininganddeterminingwhatfairdealingis:
“Itisimpossibletodefinewhatis”fairdealing”.Itmustbeaquestionof
degree.Youmustconsiderfirstthenumberandextentofthe
quotationsandextracts.Aretheyaltogethertoomanyandtoolong
tobefair?Thenyoumustconsidertheusemadeofthem.Iftheyare
usedasabasisforcomments,criticismorreview,thatmaybefair
dealing.Iftheyareusedtoconveythesameinformationasthe
author,forarivalpurpose,thatmaybeunfair.Nextyoumustconsider
thesameinformationastheauthor,forarivalpurpose,thatmaybe
unfair.Nextyoumustconsidertheproportions.Totakelongextracts
andattachshortcommentsmaybeunfair.But,shortextractsand
longcommentsmaybefair.Otherconsiderationsmaycometomind
also.Butafterallissaidanddone,itmustbeamatterof
impressions…”.
Itshouldhoweverbenoted,thatfairdealingisadefenceto
copyrightinfringement.Therefore,itimpliessubstantialtakingof
someoneelse’swork.
2.Fairdealingandunpublishedworks
Section107oftheUScopyrightActprovidesthatthefactthatawork
isunpublishedshallnotitselfbarafindingoffairuseifsuchfindingis
madeuponconsiderationofallotherfactors.InCanadathereisno
suchspecificationbutnothingintheinthewordingofsections29to
29.2allowstoexcludeunpublishedworksfromtheapplicationofthe



fairdealingexception.However,Courtshavegenerallyrefusedto
applyittocriticism,reviewornewsreporting.IndoingsoCourts
intendtoavoidthatcertainpartsoftheworkaredisclosedbeforethe
disclosureoftheworkitself.Thisdoesnotapplytounpublished
musical,ordramaticorliteraryworksthathavebeenlargelydiffused.
3.Citationright
ThecitationrightprovidedbytheBerneConventioniscomprisedin
theCanadianfairdealingexceptionandisgrantedtoauthorsbut
alsotophonorecordproducersandbroadcasters,astheonlyformof
moralrightgrantedtothem.
TheAmericanfairusedoctrinedoesnotseemtoincludeacitation
right.
Copyrightforprivateuse
AudioHomeRecordingActc
opyingforprivateuse
(section80andfollowing)
On7October1992,theAudio
HomeRecordingActwas
adoptedintheUS,onthe
initiativeoftheRecording
IndustryAssociationofAmerica
(RIAA),theElectronicIndustries
Association(EIA)andthe
NationalMusicPublishers
Association(NMPA).ThisAct
introducedprivatecopying
legislationintheUSand
combinesaroyaltypayment
systemtogetherwiththe
obligationtoincorporatea
technicalcontrolmechanismto
preventunauthorisedserial
copyingofcopyrightedworksin
digitalaudiorecordingsand
interfacedata.Howevertheact
onlyappliestodigital
technology,leavingaside
analogueaudiorecordersand
analoguerecordingmedia
(cassettesanddiscs).
Anydigitalaudiorecording
deviceoraudiointerface
devicemanufactured,importedS
incethecominginforceofBill
C-32,itisnolongeran
infringementtoreproduceallor
anysubstantialpartof:
(a)amusicalworkembodiedin
asoundrecording;or
(b)aperformer’sperformanceof
amusicalworkembodiedina
soundrecording;or
(c)asoundrecordinginwhicha
musicalwork,oraperformer’s
performanceofamusicalwork
isembodiedontoanaudio
recordingmediumforthe
privateuseofapersonwho
makesthecopy.
An”audiorecordingmedium”is
arecordingmedium,regardless
ofitsmaterialform,ontowhicha
soundrecordingmaybe
reproducedandthatisofakind
ordinarilyusedbyindividual
consumersforthatpurpose,
excludinganyprescribedkindof
recordingmedium.
Thisexceptionishoweverlimited



ordistributedontheUSmarket
mustbefittedwithadevice
controllingcopyingknownas
the”SerialCopyManagement
System”(SCMS).Thissystemdoes
notpreventcopying.Itallows
individualstomakecopies
directlyfromtheoriginaldigital
audiorecordingstheyhave
purchasedbutnofurthercopies
canthenbemadefromthose
copies,thuspreventingwhatis
called”serialcoping”.
t
osoundrecordingsandalevy
onblankaudiorecordingmedia
wasestablishedfor
compensationpurposes.Section
82providesthateveryperson
who,forthepurposesoftrade,
manufacturesablankaudio
recordingmediuminCanadaor
importsablankaudiorecording
mediumintoCanadaisliableto
payalevytothecollecting
bodyonsellingorotherwise
disposingofthoseblankaudio
recordingmediainCanada.

EducationalInstitutions
(sections110(1),(2),(4))e
ducationalInstitutionsor
personsactingunderitsauthority
(sections29.4to30)
Thefollowingarenot
infringementsofcopyright:
-theperformanceordisplayofa
workbytheinstructorsorpupils
inthecourseoffacetoface
etchingactivitiesofanonprofit
educationalinstitution,ina
classroomorsimilarplaces
devotedtoinstruction(section
110(1)).

-theperformanceofanon-
dramaticliteraryormusicalwork
ordisplayofawork,byorinthe
courseofatransmissionif:
(a)theperformanceordisplayis
aregularpartofthe
systematicinstructional
activitiesofagovernment
bodyoranon-profit
educationalinstitution;and
(b)theperformanceordisplayis
directlyrelatedandof
materialassistancetothe
teachingcontentoftheF
oraneducationalinstitutionor
apersonactingunderits
authorityitisnotaninfringement
ofcopyrighttodothefollowing
ifitisdoneonthepremisesofan
educationalinstitution,forthe
purposesofeducationor
training,andnotforprofit:
-makeamanualreproduction
ontoasurfaceintendedfor
displayinghand-writtenmaterial;
-makeacopyoftheworktobe
usedtoprojectanimageofthat
copyusinganoverhead
projectororsimilardevice;
-reproduce,translateorperform
inpublic;
-communicateby
telecommunicationtothe
publicsituatedonthepremises
oftheeducationalinstitution;



transmission;and
(c)thetransmissionismade
primaryfor:
i)receptioninclassroomsor
similarplacesnormallydevoted
toinstruction;or
(ii)receptionbypersonsto
whom
thetransmissionisdirected
becausetheirdisabilitiesorother
specialcircumstancesprevent
theirattendanceinclassrooms
orsimilarplacesnormally
devotedtoinstruction;or
(iii)receptionbyofficersor
employeesofgovernment
bodiesasapartoftheirofficial
dutiesoremployment(section
110(2);
theperformanceofanon-
dramaticliteraryormusicalwork
otherwisethaninatransmission
tothepublic,doesnotinfringe
copyrightifdonewithoutany
purposeofdirectorindirect
commercialadvantageand
withoutpaymentofanyfeeor
othercompensationforthe
performancetoanyofits
performers,promoters,or
organisers,iftheproceedsare
usedexclusivelyforeducational,
religious,orcharitablepurposes
andnotforprivatefinancialgain
(section110(3)(4)).
(Undercertainconditionsthe
copyrightownermayobjectto
suchperformance.)-
makeatthetimeofits
communicationtothepublicby
telecommunication,asingle
copyofanewsprogram,
excludingdocumentariesand
performitinpublicbeforethe
studentsoftheinstitution.
I
snotaninfringementof
copyright:



-theliveperformanceinpublic,
primarilybystudentsofthe
educationalinstitution,ofa
work;
-theperformanceinpublicofa
soundrecordingorofawork
thatisembodiedinasound
recording;and
-theperformanceinpublicofa
workatthetimeofits
communicationtothepublicby
telecommunication
ifitisdonebeforeanaudience
consistingprimarilyofstudentsof
theeducationalinstitution,and
anypersondirectlyresponsible
forsettingacurriculumforthe
educationalinstitution;
Thepublicationinacollection,
mainlycomposedofnon-
copyrightmatter,intendedfor
theuseofeducational
institutions,andsodescribedin
thetitleandinany
advertisementsissuedbythe
publisher,ofshortpassagesfrom
publishedliteraryworksinwhich
copyrightsubsistsandnot
themselvespublishedfortheuse
ofeducationalinstitutions,does
notinfringecopyrightinthose
publishedliteraryworksif
(a)notmorethantwopassages
fromworksbythesameauthor
arepublishedbythesame
publisherwithinfiveyears
(b)thesourcefromwhichthe
passagesaretakenis
acknowledged;and
(c)thenameoftheauthor,if
giveninthesource,is



mentioned.
Comments:InTheUSCopyrightActthe”educationalinstitutions”
exceptionisprovidedbysection110butisalsocomprisedinthefair
useexception.Fairuseforpurposeofteaching(includingmultiple
copiesforclassroomuse)isnotinfringementofcopyright.Sincethe
Americanexceptionoffairuseforpurposesofteachingisgeneral,it
couldinmanyrespectsbewiderthantheCanadianexception
providedforeducationalinstitutions
reproductionbyLibrariesand
Archives
(section108)L
ibrary,ArchivesandMuseums
oranypersonactingundertheir
authority(sections30.1to30.5)
Hastherighttomakethe
reproductionofonesinglecopy
,inafacsimileformof:
-apublishedworksolelyforthe
purposeofreplacementofa
copyorphonorecordthatis
damaged,deteriorating,lostor
stolenandifanunused
replacementcannotbe
obtainedatfairprice;
-anunpublishedworkfor
purposesofpreservationand
securityorfordepositfor
researchuseinanotherLibrary
orarchivesifthecopyor
phonorecordiscurrentlyinthe
collectionsoftheLibraryor
archives;
-acopyof(i)nomorethanone
articleorothercontributiontoa
copyrightedcollectionor
periodicalissue,(ii)ofasmall
partofanyothercopyrighted
workor(iii)ofasubstantialpart
ofitifacopyofthatworkor
phonorecordcannotbe
obtainedatafairpriceandif
thecopybecomestheproperty
oftheuserforprivateuse,I
tisnotaninfringementof
copyrighttomakeacopyofa
work:
-iftheoriginalisrareor
unpublishedandisdeteriorating,
damagedorlostorisatriskof
deterioration,orbecoming
damagedorlost;
-forthepurposeofon-site
consultationiftheoriginal
cannotbeviewed,handledor
listenedtobecauseofits
conditionorbecauseofthe
atmosphericconditionsinwhich
itmustbekept;
-forthepurposesofinternal
record-keepingand
cataloguing;
-forinsurancepurposesor
policeinvestigations;
-forrestoration;
-inanalternativeformatifthe
originaliscurrentlyinan
obsoleteformatorthe
technologyrequiredtousethe
originalisunavailable.



scholarship,orresearch
ontheconditionthat:(1)the
reproductionordistributionis
madewithoutanypurposeof
directorindirectcommercial
advantage;
(2)thecollectionsoftheLibrary
areopentothepublicortoall
personsdoingresearchina
specialisedfield,;and(3)the
reproductionordistributionof
theworkincludesanoticeof
copyright.
Computerprograms
(section117)c
omputerprograms
(section30.6)
Inisnotaninfringementforthe
ownerofacopyofacomputer
programtomakeorauthorise
themakingofanothercopyor
adaptationofthatcomputer
programprovided:
(1)thatsuchanewcopyor
adaptationiscreatedasan
essentialstepintheutilisationof
thecomputerprogramin
conjunctionwithamachineand
thatitisusedinnoother
manner;or
(2)thatsuchnewcopyor
adaptationisforarchival
purposesonlyandthatall
archivalcopiesaredestroyedin
theeventthatcontinued
possessionofthecomputer
programshouldceasetobe
rightful;
Anyexactcopiespreparedin
accordancewiththeprovisions
ofthissectionmaybeleased,
sold,orotherwisetransferred,
alongwiththecopyfromwhich
suchcopieswereprepared,onlyI
tisnotaninfringementof
copyrightinacomputer
programforapersonwhoowns
acopyofthecomputer
programthatisauthorisedby
theownerofthecopyrightto
(a)makeasinglereproduction
ofthecopybyadapting,
modifyingorconvertingthe
computerprogramortranslating
itintoanothercomputer
languageifthepersonproves
thatthereproducedcopyis
(i)essentialforthecompatibility
ofthecomputerprogramwitha
particularcomputer,
(ii)solelyfortheperson’sown
use,and
(iii)destroyedimmediatelyafter
thepersonceasestobethe
ownerofthecopy;or
(b)makeasinglereproduction
forbackuppurposesofthecopy
orofthereproducedcopy
referredtoinparagraph(a)if
thepersonprovesthatthe
reproductionforbackup
purposesisdestroyed




aspartofthelease,sale,or
othertransferofallrightsinthe
program.Adaptationso
preparedmaybetransferred
onlywiththeauthorisationofthe
copyrightowner.
i
mmediatelywhentheperson
ceasestobetheownerofthe
copyofthecomputerprogram.
IncidentalInclusionincidentalInclusion
(section30.7)
Itisnotaninfringementof
copyrighttoincidentallyandnot
deliberately
(a)includeaworkorother
subject-matterinanotherwork
orothersubjectmatter;or
(b)doanyactinrelationtoa
workorothersubjectmaterthat
isincidentallyandnot
deliberatelyincludedinanother
workorothersubject-matter.
Ephemeralrecordings
(section112)e
phemeralrecordings
(sections30.8and30.9)
ThisexceptionexistsintheUS
CopyrightActandisquitesimilar
totheCanadianone.I
tisnotaninfringementof
copyrightforaprogramming
undertakingtofixorreproduce
inaccordancewiththissection
aperformer’sperformanceor
work,otherthana
cinematographicwork,thatis
performedlive,orasound
recordingthatisperformedat
thesametimeastheperformer’s
performanceorwork,ifthe
undertaking
(a)isauthorisedto
communicatetheperformer’s
performance,workorsound
recordingtothepublicby
telecommunications;
(b)makesthefixationor



reproductionitself,foritsown
broadcasts;
(c)doesnotsynchronisethe
fixationorreproductionwithall
orpartsofanotherrecording,
performer’sperformanceor
work;and
(d)doesnotcausethefixation
orreproductiontobeusedin
advertisementintendedtosellor
promote,asthecasemaybe,a
product,service,causeor
institution.
personswithperceptual
disabilities
(sections110(8)(9)and121)P
ersonswithperceptual
disabilities
(sections2and32)
Itisnotinfringementofcopyright
foranauthorisedentityto
reproduceortodistributecopies
orphonorecordsofapreviously
publishednon-dramaticliterary
workifsuchcopiesor
phonorecordsarereproduced
ordistributedinspecialised
formatsexclusivelyforuseby
blindorotherpersonswith
disabilities.
I
tisnotaninfringementof
copyrightforaperson,atthe
requestofapersonwitha
perceptualdisability,orfora
non-profitorganisationactingfor
hisorherbenefit,to
(a)makeacopyorsound
recordingofawork,otherthan
acinematographicwork,ina
formatspeciallydesignedfor
personswithaperceptual
disability;
(b)translate,adapt,or
reproduceinsignlanguagea
literaryordramaticwork,other
thanacinematographicwork,in
aformatspeciallydesignedfor
personswithaperceptual
disability;or
(c)performinpublicaliteraryor
dramaticwork,otherthana
cinematographicwork,insign
language,eitherliveorina
formatspeciallydesignedfor
personswithaperceptual
disability.



Isnotacopyrightinfringement,
theperformanceofanon-
dramaticliterarywork,byorin
thecourseofatransmission
specificallydesignedforand
primarilydirectedtoblindor
otherhandicappedpersonswho
areunabletoreadnormal
printedmaterialasaresultof
theirhandicap,ordeaforother
handicappedpersonswhoare
unabletoheartheauralsignals
accompanyingatransmissionof
visualsignals,iftheperformance
ismadewithoutanypurposeof
directorindirectcommercial
advantageanditstransmissionis
madethroughthefacilitiesof:(i)
agovernmentbody;or(ii)a
non-commercialeducational
broadcaststation,;or(iii)aradio
subcarrierauthorisation;(iv)a
cablesystem.
Isnotacopyrightinfringement,
theperformanceonasingle
occasionofadramaticliterary
workpublishedatleasttenyears
beforethedateofthe
performance,byorinthecourse
ofatransmissionspecifically
designedforandprimarilydirect
toblindorotherhandicapped
personswhoareunabletoread
normalprintedmaterialasa
resultoftheirhandicap,ifthe
performanceismadewithout
anypurposeofdirect
commercialadvantageandits
transmissionismadethroughthe
facilitiesofaradiosubcarrier
authorisationreferredtoin
clause(8)(iii)Provided,thatthe
provisionsofthisclauseshallnotT
hisexceptiondoesnot
authorisethemakingofalarge
printbook,anddoesnotapply
wheretheworkorsound
recordingiscommercially
availableinaformatspecially
designedtomeettheneedsto
apersonwithaperceptual
disability.
“perceptualdisability”meansa
disabilitythatpreventsorinhibits
apersonfromreadingor
hearingaworkinitsoriginal
format,andincludessucha
disabilityresultingfrom
(a)severeortotalimpairmentof
sightorhearingortheinabilityto
focusormoveone’seyes,
(b)theinabilitytoholdor
manipulateabook,or
(c)animpairmentrelatingto
comprehension;
“commerciallyavailable”means,
inrelationtoaworkorother
subject-matter,
(a)availableontheCanadian
marketwithinareasonabletime
andforareasonablepriceand
maybelocatedwithreasonable
effort,or
(b)forwhichalicenceto
reproduce,performinpublicor
communicatetothepublicby
telecommunicationisavailable
fromacollectivesocietywithina
reasonabletimeandfora
reasonablepriceandmaybe
locatedwithreasonableefforts;



beapplicabletomorethanone
performanceofthesamework
bythesameperformersorunder
theauspicesofthesame
organisation.
Comments:Bothactsprovideexceptionsforpersonswithperceptual
disabilities.HowevertheprotectiongivenbyCanadaseemstobe
widersinceitcoversallworksotherthancinematographicworks.The
USActlimitsitsexceptiontonon-dramaticliteraryworks(works,other
thanaudio-visualworks,expressedinwords,numbers,orotherverbal
ornumericalsymbolsorindicia,regardlessofthematerialobjectsin
whichtheyareembodied).
Otherexceptions
(section117)O
therexceptions
Whenthereisnodirector
indirectadmissioncharge,the
performanceofanon-dramatic
literaryormusicalworkotherwise
thaninatransmissiontothe
public,withoutanypurposeof
directorindirectcommercial
advantageandwithout
paymentofanyfeeorother
compensationforthe
performancetoanyofits
performers,promoters,or
organisers.
Performanceofanon-dramatic
musicalworkbyavending
establishmentopentothepublic
atlargewithoutanydirector
indirectadmissioncharge,
wherethesolepurposeofthe
performanceistopromotethe
retailsaleofcopiesor
phonorecordsofthework,and
theperformanceisnot
transmittedbeyondtheplace
wheretheestablishmentis
locatedandiswithinthe
immediateareawherethesale
isoccurring.



Performanceofanon-dramatic
literaryormusicalworkorofa
nondramatic-musicalworkofa
religiousnature,ordisplayofa
work,inthecourseofservicesat
aplaceofworshiporother
religiousassembly.E
quivalent(section32.2(3))
Performanceofanon-dramatic
musicalworksbya
governmentalbodyornonprofit
agriculturalorhorticultural
organisation,inthecourseofan
annualagriculturalor
horticulturalfairorexhibition
conductedbysuchbodyor
organisation.e
quivalent(section32.2(2))
Performanceofnon-dramatic
literaryormusicalworkinthe
courseofasocialfunctionwhich
isorganisedandpromotedby
non-profitveterans’
organisationsornon-profit
fraternalorganisationtowhich
thegeneralpublicisnotinvited.e
quivalent(section3.2(3))
CONCLUSION:“NEIGHBOURINGRIGHTS”
Asseenabove,therearestillseveralnotabledifferencesbetweenAmerican
andCanadianlaw.Tonameafew:moralrights,fairuse/fairdealing
distinction,theimpactofregistrationonalawsuit,theprotectionofuseful
articles,andthedurationofcopyright.Wealsowishtobrieflydiscusstheissue
of“neighbouring”rightswhichhasbeenincludedinarathernovelwayinthe
CanadianCopyrightAct.
OnJune4
th,1998,CanadaadheredtotheRomeConventionof1961forthe
protectionofperformersandproducersofphonograms.Inordertobecome
amember,CanadahadtomodifyitsCopyrightActtorecognisewhatis
commonlyknownas“neighbouring”rightsforperformersandphonogram
producers.Ithasalsoprovidedforbroadcastersrights.However,aswehave
seen,theCanadianlegislatorhaschosennottograntthoserightsas
neighbouringrights,butratherasauthor’srightsorcopyrightinan“object”,
whichis,asthecasemaybe,aperformance,soundrecordingor



communicationsignal.Theperformers,soundrecordmakers,and
broadcastersaretheauthorsofsuchobjectsofcopyrightbuttheyareonly
entitledtoeconomicprotectionoftheirproductsandnomoralrightsare
attachedthereto.Therefore,therightsgrantedtoperformers,soundrecord,
makersorbroadcastersareratherexceptionalinnature.
Aperformerhasacopyrightintheperformer’sperformance.The
performanceorasubstantialpartthereofisprotectedinseveralways
dependingonwhethertheperformanceisfixedornot.Iftheperformanceis
not
fixedthentherightsconsistofthesolerightto(1)communicatetothe
publicbytelecommunication,(2)toperforminpublic,whereitis
communicatedtothepublicbytelecommunicationotherwisethenbya
communicationsignal,and(3)tofixitinanymaterialform.Intheeventthe
performanceisfixed
thenthesolerightincludes(1)therighttoreproduceany
fixationthatwasmadewithoutauthorisation;(2)wheretheperformer
authorisedthefixationhealsohastheexclusiverighttoreproduceany
reproductionofthatfixation,ifthereproductionbeingreproducedwas
madeforapurposeotherthanthatforwhichtheperformer’sauthorisation
wasgivenand(3)wherefixationwaspermittedthentheperformeralsohas
thesolerighttoreproduceanyreproductionofthatfixation,iftheproduction
beingreproducedwasmadeforapurposeotherthanonepermitted.Inall
cases,theperformeralsohastheexclusiverighttorentoutasoundrecording
oftheperformanceandtoauthoriseanyoftheforegoingacts(Section17).
TheCopyrightActsetsoutaseriesofconditionsforthesubsistenceofthesole
rightssetoutabove.
Themaker(orproducer)ofasoundrecordinghasthesolerighttopublishit
forthefirsttime,toreproduceitinanymaterialform,torentitoutandto
authoriseanysuchacts(Section18).
Bothperformerandsoundrecordingmakerareentitledtobepaidequitable
remunerationforitsperformanceinpublicoritstelecommunicationtothe
publicbytelecommunication(notbyretransmission).
Thebroadcasterhasthesolerighttofixitscommunicationsignal,to
reproduceanyunauthorisedfixationofit,toauthoriseanotherbroadcaster
toretransmittothepublicsimultaneouslywithitsbroadcastandinthecaseof
atelevisioncommunicationsignal,toperformitinaplaceopentothepublic
onpaymentofanentrancefee.Hehasalsothesolerighttoauthoriseany
suchacts(Section21).



Interminating,wenotethatthatCanadaandtheUSarebothmembersof
theBerneConvention,althoughtheUSdoesnotconsideritselfboundby
article6bisonmoralrights.TheUShasnotadheredtotheRomeConvention.



ROBIC,ungrouped’avocatsetd’agentsdebrevetsetdemarquesdecommercevoué
depuis1892àlaprotectionetàlavalorisationdelapropriétéintellectuelledanstousles
domaines:brevets,dessinsindustrielsetmodèlesutilitaires;marquesdecommerce,marques
decertificationetappellationsd’origine;droitsd’auteur,propriétélittéraireetartistique,droits
voisinsetdel’artisteinterprète;informatique,logicielsetcircuitsintégrés;biotechnologies,
pharmaceutiquesetobtentionsvégétales;secretsdecommerce,know-howet
concurrence;licences,franchisesettransfertsdetechnologies;commerceélectronique,
distributionetdroitdesaffaires;marquage,publicitéetétiquetage;poursuite,litigeet
arbitrage;vérificationdiligenteetaudit;etce,tantauCanadaqu’ailleursdanslemonde.La
maîtrisedesintangibles.
ROBIC,agroupoflawyersandofpatentandtrademarkagentsdedicatedsince1892tothe
protectionandthevalorizationofallfieldsofintellectualproperty:patents,industrialdesigns
andutilitypatents;trademarks,certificationmarksandindicationsoforigin;copyrightand
entertainmentlaw,artistsandperformers,neighbouringrights;computer,softwareand
integratedcircuits;biotechnologies,pharmaceuticalsandplantbreeders;tradesecrets,
know-how,competitionandanti-trust;licensing,franchisingandtechnologytransfers;e-
commerce,distributionandbusinesslaw;marketing,publicityandlabelling;prosecution
litigationandarbitration;duediligence;inCanadaandthroughouttheworld.Ideaslive
here.
COPYRIGHTER
IDEASLIVEHERE
ILATOUTDEMÊMEFALLUL’INVENTER!
LAMAÎTRISEDESINTANGIBLES
LEGERROBICRICHARD
NOSFENÊTRESGRANDESOUVERTESSURLEMONDEDESAFFAIRES
PATENTER
R
ROBIC
ROBIC+DROIT+AFFAIRES+SCIENCES+ARTS
ROBIC++++
ROBIC+LAW+BUSINESS+SCIENCE+ART
THETRADEMARKERGROUP
TRADEMARKER
VOSIDÉESÀLAPORTÉEDUMONDE,DESAFFAIRESÀLAGRANDEURDELAPLANÈTE
YOURBUSINESSISTHEWORLDOFIDEAS;OURBUSINESSBRINGSYOURIDEASTOTHEWORLD